Materials Characterization

Destructive vs. Nondestructive Testing

• In destructive testing, tests are carried out to the specimen's failure, in
order to understand a specimen's performance or material behaviour
under different loads.
• These tests are generally much easier to carry out, yield more
information, and are easier to interpret than nondestructive testing.
• Some types of destructive testing:
• Mechanical Testing Tensile testing
• Impact testing Charpy Impact test
• Hardness testing
• Metallographic tests
 Nondestructive Testing
• Nondestructive testing (NDT) is the process of
• inspecting,
• testing, or
• evaluating materials,
• components or assemblies for discontinuities, or
• differences in characteristics without destroying the serviceability of
the part or system.
• In other words, when the inspection or test is completed the part can
still be used.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DESTRUCTIVE
AND NON DESTRUCTIVE TEST
NON DESTRUCTIVE TEST
Used for finding out defects of
materials
Load is not applied on the material
DESTRUCTIVE TEST
Used for finding out the properties
of the material
Load is applied on the material

No load applications, so no chance Due to load application, material

for material damage gets damaged
No requirement of special Special equipments are required
equipments
Non expensive Expensive
Less skill Skill is required
e.g: dye penetrate test, ultrasonic, e.g: tensile test, compression test,
radiography, etc hardness test, etc
 When is NDT Used?
There are NDT application at almost any stage in the production or life cycle of a
component.
• To assist in product development
• To screen or sort incoming materials
• To monitor, improve or control manufacturing processes
• To verify proper processing such as heat treating
• To verify proper assembly
• To inspect for in-service damage
 Applications of Nondestructive Testing
• NDT plays a vital role in assuring the safe operation of equipment and
systems
• Industries that utilize NDT:
• Airline and Aerospace
• Automotive and Railroad
• Construction
• Hydroelectric, Fossil, and Nuclear Power
• Textile and Manufacturing
• Chemical and Petrochemical
• Logistics and Supply
• Medical and Pharmaceutical
 Nondestructive Testing
• NDT test methods may be used to determine:

• the size, shape, or orientation of a flaw (such as a crack or porosity)

• the thickness of a material or coating
• the hardness of a material
• the material composition (example, the carbon content in steel)
• a material’s electrical conductivity
 ADVANTAGES OF NDT
• The equipments are easy to handle
• Defects can be detected without damaging the components
• Methods are quick and accurate
• Components can be sorted out on the basis of electrical, magnetic or chemical
properties
• Test results and other information can be conveniently recorded on paper films,
cassettes and floppies
 Commonly Used NDT Techniques
Techniques Capabilities Limitations
Visual Inspection Macroscopic surface flaws Small flaws are difficult to detect, no subsurface
flaws.
Microscopy Small surface flaws Not applicable to larger structures; no subsurface
flaws.
Radiography Subsurface flaws Smallest defect detectable is 2% of the thickness;
radiation protection. Not for porous materials
Dye penetrate Surface flaws No subsurface flaws not for porous materials
Ultrasonic Subsurface flaws Material must be good conductor of sound.
Magnetic Particle Surface / near surface and Limited subsurface capability, only for ferromagnetic
layer flaws materials.
Eddy Current Surface and near surface flaws Difficult to interpret in some applications; only for
metals.
Acoustic emission Can analyze entire structure Difficult to interpret, expensive equipments.
Dye Penetrant Testing
 Dye Penetrant Testing
• Basic Principle
• Penetrant solution is applied to the surface of a
pre-cleaned component.
• The liquid is pulled into surface-breaking defects
by capillary action.
• Excess penetrant material is carefully cleaned
from the surface.
• A developer is applied to pull the trapped
penetrant back to the surface where it is spread
out and forms an indication.
• The indication is much easier to see than the
actual defect.
 Dye Penetrant Testing
• Main Uses
• Used to locate cracks, porosity, and other
defects that break the surface of a material and
have enough volume to trap and hold the
penetrant material.
• Liquid penetrant testing is used to inspect
large areas very efficiently and will work on
most nonporous materials.
 Dye Penetrant Testing
• Main Advantages
• Large surface areas or large volumes of parts/materials can be
inspected rapidly and at low cost.
• Parts with complex geometry are routinely inspected.
• Indications are produced directly on surface of the part providing a
visual image of the discontinuity.
• Equipment investment is minimal.
 Dye Penetrant Testing
• Disadvantages
• Detects only surface breaking defects.
• Surface preparation is critical as contaminants can mask defects.
• Requires a relatively smooth and nonporous surface.
• Post cleaning is necessary to remove chemicals.
• Requires multiple operations under controlled conditions.
• Chemical handling precautions are necessary (toxicity, fire, waste).
Magnetic Particle Testing
 Magnetic Particle Testing
• Basic Principle
• A magnetic field is established in a component made from
ferromagnetic material.
• The magnetic lines of force travel through the material, and exit
and re enter the material at the poles.
• Defects such as crack or voids cannot support as much flux, and
force some of the flux outside of the part.
• Magnetic particles distributed over the component will be
attracted to areas of flux leakage and produce a visible indication.
• Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment are then
applied to the specimen.
• These particles are attracted to magnetic flux leakage fields and
will cluster to form an indication directly over the discontinuity.
• This indication can be visually detected under proper lighting
conditions.
 Magnetic Particle Testing
• Main Uses
• Used to inspect ferromagnetic
materials (those that can be
magnetized) for defects that result
in a transition in the magnetic
permeability of a material.
• Magnetic particle inspection can
detect surface and near surface
defects.
 Magnetic Particle Testing
• Main Advantages
• Large surface areas of complex parts can be inspected rapidly.
• Can detect surface and subsurface flaws.
• Surface preparation is less critical than it is in penetrant inspection.
• Magnetic particle indications are produced directly on the surface of
the part and form an image of the discontinuity.
• Equipment costs are relatively low.
 Magnetic Particle Testing
• Disadvantages
• Only ferromagnetic materials can be inspected.
• Proper alignment of magnetic field and defect is critical.
• Large currents are needed for very large parts.
• Requires relatively smooth surface.
• Paint or other nonmagnetic coverings adversely affect sensitivity.
• Demagnetization and post cleaning is usually necessary.
 Ultrasonic Testing
• Basic Principle
• High frequency sound waves are sent into a
material by use of a transducer.
• The sound waves travel through the material
and are received by the same transducer or a
second transducer.
• The amount of energy transmitted or
received and the time the energy is received
are analyzed to determine the presence of
flaws.
• Changes in material thickness, and changes
in material properties can also be measured.
• Principle of ultrasonic testing
LEFT: A probe sends a sound wave into a test material. There are two
indications, one from the initial pulse of the probe, and the second due
to the back wall echo. RIGHT: A defect creates a third indication and
simultaneously reduces the amplitude of the back wall indication. The
depth of the defect is determined by the ratio D/Ep
 Ultrasonic Testing
• Main Uses
• Used to locate surface and subsurface defects in many
materials including metals, plastics, and wood.
• Ultrasonic inspection is also used to measure the
thickness of materials and otherwise characterize
properties of material based on sound velocity and
attenuation measurements.
 Ultrasonic Testing
• Main Advantages
• Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to
other methods.
• Only single sided access is required.
• Provides distance information.
• Minimum part preparation is required.
• Method can be used for much more than just flaw detection.
 Ultrasonic Testing
• Disadvantages
• Surface must be accessible to probe and couplant.
• Skill and training required is more extensive than other technique.
• Surface finish and roughness can interfere with inspection.
• Thin parts may be difficult to inspect.
• Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam can go undetected.
• Reference standards are often needed.
 Eddy Current Testing
• Basic Principle
• Alternating electrical current is passed
through a coil producing a magnetic field.
• When the coil is placed near a conductive
material, the changing magnetic field
induces current flow in the material.
• These currents travel in closed loops and are
called eddy currents.
• Eddy currents produce their own magnetic
field that can be measured and used to find
flaws and characterize conductivity,
permeability, and dimensional features.
 Eddy Current Testing
• Main Uses
• Used to detect surface and near-surface flaws in
conductive materials, such as the metals.
• Eddy current inspection is also used to sort
materials based on electrical conductivity and
magnetic permeability, and measures the
thickness of thin sheets of metal and
nonconductive coatings such as paint.
 Eddy Current Testing
• Main Advantages
• Detects surface and near surface defects.
• Test probe does not need to contact the part.
• Method can be used for more than flaw detection.
• Minimum part preparation is required.
 Eddy Current Testing
• Disadvantages
• Only conductive materials can be inspected.
• Ferromagnetic materials require special treatment to address magnetic
permeability.
• Depth of penetration is limited.
• Flaws that lie parallel to the inspection probe coil winding direction can go
undetected.
• Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques.
• Surface finish and roughness may interfere.
• Reference standards are needed for setup.
 Radiographic Testing
• Basic Principle
• X-rays are used to produce images of objects
using film or other detector that is sensitive
to radiation.
• The test object is placed between the
radiation source and detector.
• The thickness and the density of the material
that X-rays must penetrate affects the
amount of radiation reaching the detector.
• This variation in radiation produces an
image on the detector that often shows
internal features of the test object.
 Radiographic Testing
• Main Uses
• Used to inspect almost any material for surface
and subsurface defects. X-rays can also be used
to locates and measures internal features,
confirm the location of hidden parts in an
assembly, and to measure thickness of materials.
 Radiographic Testing
• Main Advantages
• Can be used to inspect virtually all materials.
• Detects surface and subsurface defects.
• Ability to inspect complex shapes and multi-layered structures without
disassembly.
• Minimum part preparation is required.
 Radiographic Testing
• Disadvantages
• Extensive operator training and skill required.
• Access to both sides of the structure is usually required.
• Orientation of the radiation beam to non-volumetric defects is critical.
• Field inspection of thick section can be time consuming.
• Relatively expensive equipment investment is required.
• Possible radiation hazard for personnel.