CHAPTER 16

GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT,
AND THE YOUNG ATHLETE
Learning Objectives
w Find out at what age fat-free body mass reaches its peak
rate of growth in males and females.
w Learn what changes occur with pulmonary function and
maximal and submaximal heart rate with growth.
w Discover how growth affects stroke volume and cardiac
output at fixed rates of work.
w Find out why absolute aerobic and cardiorespiratory
endurance capacity increases from age 6 to age 20.
(continued)
Learning Objectives
w Examine the differences between children and adults with
respect to thermoregulation.
w Discover how children can improve their strength safely.
w Learn how training improves aerobic and anaerobic
capacities in prepubescent children.
w Review the effects of physical activity and regular training
on a child’s growth and maturation.
Terminology

Growth—an increase in the size of the body or its parts

Development—the functional changes that occur with
growth
Maturation—process of taking on an adult form and
becoming functional
w Chronological age
w Skeletal age
w Stage of sexual maturation
Phases of Growth and Development

Infancy—first year of life

Childhood—age 1 to puberty
Puberty—development of secondary sex characteristics
and capability of sexual reproduction
Adolescence—puberty to completion of growth and
development
RATE OF INCREASE IN
HEIGHT AND WEIGHT
BONE OSSIFICATION
Bone Growth

w Is complete when cartilage cells stop growing and

epiphyseal plates are replaced by bone (by early 20s)
w Requires rich blood supply to deliver essential nutrients
w Requires calcium to help build and maintain strength
w Slows or breaks down when blood calcium levels
are too low
w Is helped by exercise which affects bone width,
density, and strength
Bone Injuries and Growth

Fractures of the epiphyseal plate

w Change blood supply
w Disrupt growth, which can lead to limb length
discrepancies
Traumatic epiphysitis
w Inflammation of epiphysis
w Can lead to separation of epiphysis
w If caught early can be treated without
permanent damage
Muscle Growth

w Results primarily from hypertrophy of existing fibers

w Muscle length increases with bone growth due to increase
in sarcomeres
w Boys’ muscle mass peaks at 50% of body weight at 18 to
25 years
w Girls’ muscle mass peaks at 40% of body weight at
16 to 20 years
Growth and Fat Storage

w Fat is stored starting at birth

w Fat is stored by increasing the size and number of fat cells
w Fat storage depends on diet, exercise habits, and heredity
w At maturity, fat content averages 15% in males and 25% in
females
SKINFOLD FAT IN CHILDREN
CHANGES IN FAT AND FAT-FREE MASS
Key Points
Tissue Growth and Development
w Girls mature physiologically about 2 to 2.5
years earlier than boys do.
w Bones are formed through an ossification
process which is usually complete by one’s
early 20s.
w Injury of a bone’s epiphysis could cause
delays in its growth.
w Muscle growth occurs primarily at puberty
due to hypertrophy and increases in
sarcomere length.
(continued)
Key Points
Tissue Growth and Development
w Fat storage occurs due to increases in the
size and number of fat cells.
w Fat storage starts at birth and is influenced
throughout life by diet, exercise, and
heredity.
w Balance, agility, and coordination improve
as children’s nervous systems develop.
w Myelination of nerve fibers—which speeds
the transmission of impulses—is
necessary before fast reactions and skills
are fully developed.
Physical Performance and Maturation

w Motor ability increases

w Strength increases
w Lung volume and peak flow increase
w Blood pressure, heart size, and blood volume increase
w Heart rate decreases
w Aerobic and anaerobic capacities and
running economy increase
w Heat and cold tolerance increases
STRENGTH GAINS WITH AGE
STRENGTH CHANGES WITH
DEVELOPMENT
Key Points
Pulmonary Function and Growth
w As body size increases, lung size and lung
function increase.
w Lung volumes and peak flow increase until
growth is complete.
.
w VEmax increases with age until physical
maturity at which point it begins to
decrease with age.
w Boys' absolute lung volumes and peak flow
values are higher than girls' absolute
values due to girls’ smaller body size.
Submaximal Exercise and Growth

Blood pressure
w Lower in children but progressively increases to adult
levels in later teens
w Larger body size results in higher blood pressure
Cardiovascular function
w Smaller heart size and total blood volume of
children result in a lower stroke volume
w Heart rate response is higher than adults
at given rate of submaximal work
w Lower cardiac output than adults
-
w Higher a-vO 2 diff than adults
SUBMAXIMAL HEART RATE AND
STROKE VOLUME
 . - DIFF
SUBMAXIMAL Q AND a-vO2
Key Points
Maximal Exercise and Growth
w HRmax is higher in children but decreases
linearly with age.
.
w Maximal stroke volume and Qmax are
lower in children than in adults.
w Lower oxygen delivery capacity limits
performance at high absolute rates of
work.
w At relative rates of work (moving own body
weight) oxygen delivery capacity does not
limit performance.
Key Points
.
VO2max and Growth
.
w VO2max peaks around age 17 to 21 in
males and decreases linearly with age.
.
w VO2max has been shown to peak around
age 12 to 15 in females, though the
decrease after age 15 may be due to
females tending to reduce physical activity.
.
w Absolute VO2max is lower in children than
adults at similar training levels.
.
w When VO2max is expressed relative to
body weight, there is little difference in
aerobic capacity between adults and
children.
 .
CHANGES IN VO2MAX WITH AGE
Anaerobic Capacity in Children

w Ability to perform anaerobic activities is lower

w Glycolytic capacity is lower
w Produce less lactate and cannot attain high RER values
during maximal exercise
w Anaerobic mean and peak power outputs are lower
AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC
DEVELOPMENT
Thermal Stress and Children

w Evaporative heat loss is lower due to less sweat being

produced by sweat glands.
w Acclimatization to heat is slower in boys than adult men.
w Conductive heat loss is greater, increasing risk for
hypothermia.
w Exercising in extreme temperatures should be
minimized.
Resistance Training in Preadolescents

w May protect against injury and help build bones

w Improves motor skill coordination
w Increases motor unit activation
w Results in other neurological adaptations
w Causes little change in muscle size
A THEORETICAL MODEL FOR
STRENGTH ADAPTATIONS
Key Points
Training the Young Athlete
w Training programs for children should be
conservative to reduce the risk of injury,
overtraining, and loss of interest in the
sport.
w An appropriate resistance training program
is relatively safe for children.
w Aerobic training improves endurance
performance
. in children (though not
VO2max).
(continued)
Key Points
Training the Young Athlete
w Anaerobic capacity increases with aerobic
training.
w Regular training typically results in
decreased total body fat, increased fat-free
mass, and increased total body mass.
w Generally, training does not appear to
significantly alter growth and maturation
rates.