Environmental Impact of

Geothermal Power Plants

 Overview

Certain environmental impacts associated with the

development of geothermal sites and the operation
of plants are inevitable. However, under normal
conditions they are generally confined to the
immediate vicinity of the plant and are of lesser
impact than those of other electric power generation
technologies, particularly those using carbon based
fossil fuels and nuclear fuels.
There have now been more than one hundred years
of experience in developing geothermal fields, and
in building, operating, upgrading, and even
decommissioning geothermal plants of various
types.
 Regulations
Most countries have laws that regulate the construction
and operation of power plants with the intent of
preserving the natural environment and safeguarding the
health and well-being of people as well as the flora and
fauna of the region. The United States has federal, state,
and local regulations that cover a broad range of possible
environmental impacts.
 The following laws and regulations must be adequately
addressed before any geothermal project can be completed:

Clean Air Act

National Environmental Policy Act
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permitting Program
Safe Drinking Water Act
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
Toxic Substance Control Act
Noise Control Act
Endangered Species Act
Archeological Resources Protection Act
 Hazardous Waste and Materials Regulations
Occupational Health and Safety Act, and
Indian Religious Freedom Act.

Although there are no uniform international standards regarding the

environmental impact of geothermal plants, it is common for most countries to
require that plants meet appropriate environmental regulations.
General impacts of electricity generation

Gaseous emissions to the atmosphere

Water pollution
Solids emissions to the surface and the atmosphere
Noise pollution
Land usage
Land subsidence
Induced seismicity
Induced landslides
 Water usage
Disturbance of natural hydrothermal manifestations
Disturbance of wildlife habitat and vegetation
Alteration of natural vistas
Catastrophic events
Of these some are of serious concern for geothermal
plants. Abatement technology is available and usually
deployed to mitigate the most potentially harmful impacts.
Compared with other types of power plants, geothermal
plants hold significant advantages for many of these
impacts.
Environmental advantages of geothermal
plants
Environmentally Friendly - Geothermal energy is a
renewable energy source that's highly
environmentally friendly. Little disruption is made
to the environment as a result of the various
processes that are used to harness this energy
source in order to provide electricity. Few chemicals
and pollutants feature in geothermal electricity
production.
There is great concern worldwide about
atmospheric emissions of carbon
dioxide, CO2, owing to its heat-trapping
properties and the fear of its effect on the global
climate. Geothermal power plants have very low
gaseous emissions, albeit most of which is
CO2, on a per MWh-generated basis, when
compared with all other power generation
technologies that emit CO2 as a normal part of
operation.
Geothermal binary plants normally emit no gases at all.
Using the same basis of comparison, geothermal plants 23
Environmental Impact of Geothermal Power Plants 485 use
much less land than any other type of power plant. With one
notable exception, geothermal fluids used in power plants
are fairly innocuous chemically and pose little hazard in
terms of solids pollution. Reinjection of waste brines from
geothermal plants avoids contamination of surface and
groundwater aquifers. Thus, taken in broad
scope, geothermal power plants are one of the most, if not
the most, environmentally benign sources of electrical
power.
 Gaseous emissions
Gaseous emissions from dry- and flash-steam geothermal
plants stem from the no condensable gases (NCG) that are
carried in the geofluid in dissolved form. Unless the NCG are
removed upstream of the turbine (which is currently not done
in commercial plants), the NCG will accumulate in the
condenser, thereby raising the backpressure on the turbine.
Carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, H2S, are the most
common and prominent NCG in geothermal steam, but gases
such as methane, hydrogen, sulfur dioxide, or ammonia can
also be found, usually in very low concentrations
Currently it is not required to capture or treat CO2, but H2S is
strictly regulated in the United States owing to its offensive
odor at very low concentrations, 30 parts per billion, and to
its toxicity at higher levels.
In an attempt to control global warming, rules and
regulations are being discussed around the world that would
penalize plants that emit carbon into the atmosphere. One
approach would place a “cap” on carbon emissions for power
plants; another would institute a “carbon tax” on emissions.
Table 23.1 shows a
comparison of gaseous emissions from typical geothermal plants with other types of
power plants [8]. It is worth noting that the NOx and SO2 emissions at The Geysers only
result from the method used to treat H2S in the NCG, namely, a combustion process that
oxidizes the H2S in a few of the units. Most geothermal steam plants do not rely on combustion
for H2S abatement and therefore emit no NOx at all.
 Land usage
The area required to support a geothermal power plant, including the well
field, substation, access roads, and auxiliary buildings depends on the power
plant rating, the type of energy conversion system, the properties of the
geothermal reservoir fluid, and the piping system chosen for collecting the
geofluid from the production wells and disposing of the waste brine to the
injection wells. The power plant must be built close to the production wells
to avoid thermodynamic losses caused by long geofluid pipelines. Although
a well field for a 2050 MW power plant can cover a considerable area,5 to 10
km2 or more, the well pads themselves typically cover only about 2% of the
total area. Directional drilling allows multiple wells to be drilled from a single
pad and minimizes the area needed for the well pads.
Table 23.2, using data from [6] and elsewhere, presents a
comparison of land usages for typical geothermal flash and
binary plants with those of coal, nuclear, hydroelectric,
solar thermal, photovoltaic, and wind plants [1]. Realistic
capacity factors have been used in the calculations for each
technology; furthermore, average power outputs, not
rated values, were used for the solar plants.
 Solids discharge
The solids that could potentially be discharged into the
environment from geothermalplants are confined to
materials that are initially dissolved in the geofluid and which
precipitate during the processes undergone within the power
plant. Of all the plants now in operation around the
world, only those at the Salton Sea field in Southern
California pose a threat in this regard.
 The two methods for coping with these high-salinity
brines, namely, flashcrystallizer/ reactor-clarifier (FCRC) and pH-
modification (pH-mod) systems. By controlling the precipitation of the
solids, these methods allow either for the solids to remain in solution
long enough to pass through the plant and be reinjected back into the
reservoir (pH-mod) or for the solids to precipitate in a manner and
place where they can be removed from the geofluid and collected for
proper disposal (FCRC). The latter approach cleans the brine and
permits it to be reinjected without the possibility of solids precipitation
within the reservoir where it could adversely affect the permeability of
the formation. Thus, with proper design of the treatment system, the
solids naturally occurring in the brine are not allowed to escape
uncontrolled into the environment.
 Water usage

Water is needed at every stage of development of a

geothermal project. This is no different from any other
large power development project. However, the needs for
geothermal projects are relatively easy to satisfy.
Furthermore, water use can be managed in most cases to
minimize environmental impacts. The two main areas of
water usage are the drilling of wells and the discharge of
waste heat if a water cooling tower is used.
Well drilling. describes the drilling operations for geothermal
wells. The water required during this phase of development cools
the drill bit, removes rock chips, and provides structural integrity
of the hole until casing can be set.
Cooling water for heat rejection. Whenever power is generated
on a continuing basis, the rejection of heat into the environment
is an inevitable consequence of the Second Law of
thermodynamics. The customary method of discharging waste
heat in 492 Geothermal Power Plants: Principles, Applications,
Case Studies and Environmental Impact geothermal steam or
flash plants is the use of water cooling towers.
It is not necessary to use any water for cooling purposes if a dry
cooling system is adopted. Air-cooled condensers are widely
used with binary plants where water may be in short supply
since binary plants do not supply their own make-up water as
do flash-steam and dry-steam plants While air-cooled
condensers eliminate the need for fresh make-up water, they
occupy large tracts of land, as mentioned earlier, owing to the
poor heat transfer properties of air versus water.
Additionally, there is a larger parasitic power requirement
compared to water cooling towers owing to the large number
of electric motor-driven fans.
 Water pollution
There are several places where geofluids may get into the
environment during field development or normal operations.
Since these fluids may contain minerals and elements harmful
to humans, flora, or fauna, the onus is on the plant designers to
provide barriers to prevent these fluids from entering the
biosphere. The amount of dissolved solids increases
significantly with temperature, making high-temperature
geofluids more risky than moderate- or low-temperature ones.
Some of these dissolved minerals (e.g., boron and arsenic)
could poison surface or ground waters and also harm
vegetation or animals.
 Liquid streams might endanger surface waters
through run-off during well testing. Thus, fluids discharging
during tests are directed to impermeable holding ponds. Also
steam pipelines are fitted with traps to remove condensate
and that liquid is sent by pipelines to holding ponds. Later the
collected fluids are reinjected deep underground.
Despite all these design precautions, it is
nevertheless prudent to have monitoring wells strategically
located in the well field to rapidly detect any problems with
subsurface leakage and permit prompt remediation. For those
few developments where 100% reinjection of residual brines is
still not practiced, it is essential to monitor all discharge
streams to avoid exceeding allowable limits of contaminants.
Environmental challenges of geothermal plants
Land subsidence
Geothermal reservoir production at rates much greater
than recharge can lead to surface subsidence. This was
observed, for example, beginning with the first few years
of operation of the power plant at Wairakei when all the
residual brine was allowed to flow to the adjacent Waikato
River. The production wells at Wairakei were drilled
through a relatively shallow cap rock (Huka Falls
Formation) containing pumice breccias and mudstones.
 The thickness of the cap rock varies from 150200 m in the
northern part of the field to only 3090 m in the western part.
Tests have shown that the pumice breccias and mudstones
exhibit compressibilities sufficiently high to account for the
subsidence [22]. It is important to note that the greatest
subsidence correlates with the thickest part of the cap rock (R.
Glover, personal communication, May 16, 2007
Although reinjection does not guarantee the avoidance of
subsidence, it can reduce the risk, provided it is carried out so as
to maintain reservoir fluid pressure. Nowadays, geothermal
developers normally incorporate reinjection into reservoir
management programs right from the start both to minimize this
risk and to prolong the life of the reservoir.
Induced seismicity
Induced seismicity is a phenomenon in which a change in
fluid pressure within astressed rock formation leads to
movement of the fractured rocks. The energy released is
transmitted through the rock and may reach the surface
with enough intensity to be heard or felt by persons in the
area. This may happen, for example, when the reservoir for
a hydroelectric station is first filled, when fossil fuels are
extracted from oil and gas fields, or when fluids are
injected underground at high pressure. The likelihood and
the severity of the event depend on the local state of
stress within the formation.
Figure 23.7 Wairakei drop structure
(hot-water drainage channel) to the
Wairakei Stream not far from the area
of
maximum subsidence. Photo courtesy
of S. Tamanyu, Geological Survey of
Japan; photo first published on the
cover
of Chishitsu News, No. 531, 1998
[WWW].
Induced landslides
Many geothermal fields lie in rugged volcanic terrain
prone to natural landslides.Indeed, some fields have
been developed atop ancient landslides. Landslides
can be triggered by earthquakes, and, as we have
discussed, while it is possible that geothermal
production or injection could lead to induced
seismicity, it is highly improbable that such activities
could lead to an event large enough to cause a
major earthquake.
Landslides have occurred at
geothermal fields, but the cause is
often unclear. The worst disaster
happened at the Zunil field in
Guatemala in January 1991 in
which at least 23 people were
killed . Figure 23.9 shows the
devastation when a large portion
of a steep slope above the field
collapsed, spreading rock and
moisture-laden debris a distance
of 8001200 m onto a relatively flat
plateau.
Noise pollution
In the development stage of a geothermal
power project, noise is generated during road
construction, excavation for drilling sites, well
drilling, and well testing. While these may be
disturbing to nearby residents (if any), they are
of limited duration. Furthermore, the most
objectionable sounds can be significantly
reduced with appropriate mufflers and other
sound deadening materials.
 During normal plant operations, various
components are sources of noise; these
include: transformers, generators, water
cooling towers, motors, pumps and fans for
circulating water and air associated with the
heat rejection system, brine and steam
flowing through pipes, etc. These are
generally confined to the area within the
plant fence boundary.
Disturbance of natural hydrothermal manifestations
there have been numerous cases where hydrothermal
developments have compromised or totally destroyed
natural hydrothermal manifestations such as geysers, hot
springs, mud pots, etc. The drawdown, or lowering of the
hydrostatic water level, from production wells disturbs the
natural thermo hydraulic balance that gives rise to the
manifestations. In particular, geysers are delicate
phenomena that are subject to nature’s whims, even
without humankind’s interference.
Disturbance of wildlife habitat, vegetation, and scenic vistas
any power generation facility constructed where none
existed will alter the view of the landscape. Conventional
power plants in developed, commercial, or industrial
settings, while objectionable to many for other reasons, do
not stand out as sharply as a geothermal plant in a flat
agricultural region or on the flank of a volcano. Even so,
with care and creativity geothermal plants can be designed
to blend into the surroundings.
Catastrophic events
Besides landslides, some other serious events that might
occur at a geothermal plant include well blowouts, phreatic
explosions, ruptured steam pipes, turbine failures, fires, etc.
Most of these accidents are similar to what can happen at any
power generation facility and have been known to cause
casualties. The ones that are unique to geothermal power
plants involve well drilling and testing. In the early days of
geothermal energy exploitation, well blowouts during drilling
were a fairly common occurrence, but nowadays the use of
fast-acting blowout preventers have practically eliminated
this potentially life-threatening problem.
Thermal pollution
Although thermal pollution is currently not
a specifically regulated quantity, it does
represent an environmental impact for all
power plants that rely on a heat source for
their motive force. As was discussed in Sect.
5.4.6, heat rejection from geothermal
plants is higher per unit of electricity
production than for fossil-fueled or nuclear
plants.
 Figure 23.13 shows a comparison
between a geothermal single-flash
plant and several alternative cycles.
For example, using a reservoir fluid
temperature of 220C, the flash plant
rejects about three times as much
heat per unit of useful electrical
generation as an ideal Carnot cycle
operating between the reservoir
temperature and the assumed
condensing temperature of 52C. The
other practical cycles all reject far
less heat per unit of generation than
the flash plant.
Figure 23.13 Heat rejection per unit of electrical generation for
various plants: GT5simple gas turbine;
N5nuclear; C5coal; GTCC5gas turbine combined cycle