UNIT - II

AC TO DC CONVERTERS
Single phase and three phase controlled
rectifiers (half and full converters) with R, RL
and RLE load –Estimation of RMS load
voltage, RMS load current and input power
factor - effect of source inductance– Single
phase and three phase dual converters-
Generation of control signals for single-phase
AC to DC converters – Cosine wave crossing
control, ramp comparator approach
1
 Phase Controlled Rectifiers
Industries that make use of controllable dc power
 Steel rolling mills, paper mills, printing press,
textile mills employing dc motor drives
 Traction systems working on dc
 Electromechanical and electrometallurgical
processes
 Magnet power supplies
 Portable hand tool drives
 High-Voltage dc transmission

2
 Phase Controlled Rectifiers
 DC power from – MG set or ac power converted to
dc using mercury arc rectifiers or thyratrons-now
replaced by thyristors
 In phase controlled rectifiers – thyristor turned off-
when ac supply reverse biases it
 Turning off thyristor by supply voltage-natural
commutation –line commutation
 Phase Controlled Rectifiers – need no commutation
circuits-simple-less expensive-widely used in
industries where dc power is required
3
 Phase Controlled Rectifiers
In thyristor based rectifiers, output voltage can be
controlled. So they are termed as controlled
rectifiers.

Controlled rectifiers produce variable DC output,

whose magnitude is varied by Phase control.

Phase Control

 DC output from rectifier is controlled by controlling

duration of the conduction period by varying the
point at which gate signal is applied to SCR.
4
 Phase Controlled Rectifiers
Controlled rectifiers are of two types,
1. Fully Controlled rectifiers
 DC current is unidirectional, but DC voltage has
either polarity. With one polarity, flow of power is
from AC source to DC load---Rectification.
 With the reversal of DC voltage by the load, flow
of power is from DC load to AC source---
Inversion.
2. Half controlled rectifiers
 Half of SCRs are replaced by diodes.
 DC output current and voltage are unidirectional.
i.e., flow of power is from AC source to DC load.
5
 Single Phase Half wave phase
controlled rectifier with R load
Circuit diagram of a single
phase fully controlled half-
wave rectifier (with a
thyristor) supplying a purely
resistive load
Supply Voltage Vs=Vm
sinωt

.
Voltage and current waveform
At ωt = 0 when the input supply
voltage becomes positive the
thyristor T becomes forward
biased. However, unlike a diode, it
does not turn ON till a gate pulse
is applied at ωt = α.
During the period 0 < ωt ≤ α, the
thyristor blocks the supply voltage
and the load voltage remains zero
no load current flows during this
interval.
As soon as a gate pulse is applied
to the thyristor at ωt = α it turns
ON
The voltage across the thyristor
collapses to almost zero and the
full supply voltage appears across
the load.
 Voltage and current waveform
The load voltage follows the supply voltage.
The load being purely resistive the load current io
is proportional to the load voltage.
At ωt = π as the supply voltage passes through the
negative going zero crossing the load voltage and
hence the load current becomes zero and tries to
reverse direction.
Thyristor undergoes reverse recovery and starts
blocking the negative supply voltage.
The load voltage and the load current remains
clamped at zero till the thyristor is fired again at
ωt = 2π + α.
 Voltage and current waveform
Firing angle –angle measured from the instant that
gives the largest average output voltage to the
instant it is triggered.
Once the SCR is on, load current flows-it is turned
off by reversal of voltage at ωt = π , 3π
At ωt = π , 3π, load current – zero-supply voltage
reverse biases the SCR-device turns off
A single phase half wave circuit- only one pulse of
load current in one cycle
SCR on from ωt = α to π , 2π + α to 3π,then Vt = 0
SCR off from ωt = π to 2π + α , 3π to 4π + α ,then
Vt = Vs
Vs=Vo+Vt ; the circuit turn off time tc = π / ω
 Performance Parameters
 Average value of the output voltage, Vdc
 Average value of the output current, Idc
 Output dc power, Pdc
Pdc = VdcIdc
 RMS value of the output voltage, Vrms
 Output ac power, Pac
Pac = VrmsIrms
 Efficiency, η
η = Pac/Pdc
The average Voltage V0 across R load
1 
Vo   Vm sint dt
2 
Vm
 1  cos  
2
The max Vo occurs at α = 0 ͦ . Vo Vm
Io   1  cos  
Vm R 2R
Vo m =
π

The output voltage Vdc can be varied from Vm/p to zero as the firing
angle a varies from zero to p.

11
RMS VOLTAGE
1/2
  
1
Vo   2 sin 2 t dt 
 2  m
V

  
V  
 m      sin2  
1
2  2 
Vor
Ior 
R
Power Delivered to the load  (rms load voltage)( total rms line current)

V 2or
 Vor * Ior   I 2or
R
Input volt amperes  (rms source voltage)( total rms line current)
2V 2s  
Vs * Ior      
1
sin2 
2R   2 
12
 Power delivered to load
Input Power factor 
Input VA
Vor * Ior Vor
 
Vs * Ior Vs
1   1/2
       sin2 
1
2  2 

13
 Single Phase Half wave phase
controlled rectifier with RL load
 Thyristor T becomes
forward biased when
the supply voltage
becomes positive at ωt
= 0.
 However, it does not
start conduction until a
gate pulse is applied at
ωt = α.
 As the thyristor turns
ON at ωt = α the input
voltage appears across
the load and the load
current starts building
up.
 Single Phase Half wave phase
controlled rectifier with RL load
 The load current does
not become zero at
ωt = π, instead it
continues to flow
through the thyristor
and the negative supply
voltage appears across
the load forcing the
load current to decrease.
 Finally, at ωt = β (β > π)
the load current
becomes zero and the
thyristor undergoes
reverse recovery.
 Single Phase Half wave phase controlled
rectifier with RL load
At ωt = α,SCR turns on,Vo = Vs.Inductor L forces the Io
to rise gradually
After some time Io reaches the max and begins to
reduce
At ωt = π, SCR- reverse anode voltage-does not turn off
as Io < holding current
At ωt = β> π , Io reduces to zero – SCR turns off as it is
already reverse biased
After ωt = β, Vo = 0 and Io = 0
At ωt = 2π+ α, SCR is again turned on
β = extinction angle, (β-α) = γ = conduction angle
16
 Single Phase Half wave phase controlled
rectifier with RL load
At ωt = α,VT = Vm sin α.
 At ωt = β, VT = Vm sin β
As ωt = β> π , VT = negative ,SCR reverse biased from
ωt = β to 2π
Tc = (2π- β)/ω. For reliable operation tc>tq

17
 Single Phase Half wave phase controlled rectifier
with RL load
AVERAGE VOLTAGE
1 
Vo   Vm sint dt
2 
Vm
 cos  - cos  
2
Vo Vm
Io   cos  - cos  
RMS VOLTAGE R 2 R

 1  2 
1/2

Vo    Vm sin t dt
2

 2  
Vm  1 
       sin2  - sin2 
2   2 
18
Single Phase Half wave phase controlled rectifier
with RL load with freewheeling diode
To improve the Io, a free wheeling
diode is connected-Bypass-
commutating diode
At ωt = 0,Vs = +
At ωt = 0 to α, Vs appears across
the load as Vo.
At ωt = π, Vs = 0 ,free wheeling
diode is forward biased-I0 is
transferred from SCR to FD as VS
tends to reverse
SCR= reverse voltage and zero
current-truned off at ωt = π
During freewheeling load current
does not decay to zero untill SCR
is turned on at ωt = 2π+ α
Single Phase Half wave phase controlled rectifier
with RL load with freewheeling diode
Voltage drop across FD =zero, the load
voltage V0 =zero
SCR is reverse biased from ωt = π to
2π
tc = π / ω
Mode 1 =conduction mode
 ωt = α to π, 2π+ α to 3π….
 Duration of this mode
 =[ (π- α) / ω]
Mode 2 = freewheeling mode
 ωt = π to 2π+ α , 3π to 4π+ α ….
 SCR reverse biased from π to 2π,
3π to 4π…
 Load consumes power P1
for α to π (both V0 and Io
are positive)
Energy stored (without
FD) in inductor is returned
to source as P2 for π to β
(V0 positive and Io
negative)
Net power = difference of
P1 and P2
Load absorbs power for α
to π
Energy stored (with FD)
in inductor is delivered to
the load through FD for π
to 2π + α
Power consumed by the
load is more in the ckt
with FD.
 Single Phase Half wave phase controlled rectifier
with RL load and Free wheeling diode
AVERAGE VOLTAGE 1 
Vo   Vm sint dt
2 
Vm
 1  cos  
2
Vo Vm
Io   1  cos  
R 2 R
RMS VOLTAGE

 1  2 
1/2

Vo    Vm sin t dt
2

 2  
Vm  1 
       sin2 
2   2  22
 Single Phase Half wave phase controlled rectifier with RL
load with freewheeling diode
Advantages of using freewheeling diode
Input power factor is improved
Load current waveform is improved
Load performance is improved
Freewheeling diode prevents the load voltage from becoming
negative
As a result load current is transferred from thyristor to regain its
forward blocking capability
In ckt with FD and without FD the supply current taken from the
source is unidirectional and is in the form of dc pulses
Single phase half wave converter introduces a dc component in to
the supply line-undesirable –leads to saturation of supply
transformer and other difficulties
23
Single Phase Half wave phase controlled
rectifier with RLE load
 The counter EMF in the
load - battery or dc
motor
 Minimum angle of
firing
 E 
1  sin  
-1

 VM 
  1 , then E  Vs
 SCR is reverse biased and it
will not turn on
 Single Phase Half wave phase controlled
rectifier with RLE load
 Maximum angle of firing –θ2 = Π – θ1

25
Single Phase full wave mid-point converter
Circuit diagram
Equivalent Circuit
Single Phase Full wave phase controlled rectifier
with RL load
Single Phase Full wave phase controlled rectifier with
RL load
Single Phase full converter bridge with
RLE load voltage and current waveform
for continuous load current.
Single Phase full converter bridge with RLE load voltage and
current waveform for continuous load current.
Single Phase full converter bridge with RLE load
voltage and current waveform for continuous load
current.
 Single Phase full converter bridge with
RLE load voltage and current waveform for
α > 90⁰ inverter mode of operation
Single Phase Semi-converter bridge with RLE load
Single Phase Full- (two –pulse) bridge converter with discontinuous
load current
Single Phase Semi-converter with discontinuous load current

37
 3-phase converter
Three phase converters
Three pulse converters
Six pulse converters
Twelve pulse converters

38
3-phase half wave controlled
Converter(M3-with diode)

39
3-phase half wave controlled
Converter(with diode)

40
3-phase half wave controlled
Converter(M3-with thyristors)

41
3-phase half wave controlled
Converter(M3-with thyristors)

42
43
44
45
3-phase Full converter
(with diodes)

46
3-phase Full converter
(with diodes)

47
3-phase Full converter
Three Phase Full converter (α = 0 degree)

53
Three Phase Full converter (α = 60 degree)

54
Three Phase Full converter (α = 90 degree)

55
Three Phase Full converter-Average Voltage

56
Three Phase Full converter-RMS Voltage

57
3-phase Semi-converter
1-phase Dual converter
Three phase dual convertor
Ideal dual converter
Ideal dual convertor
Single phase Practical dual
convertor
Three phase practical convertor
 FIRING CIRCUITS
(A General Layout of the Firing Circuit Scheme for SCR )

69
 FIRING CIRCUITS

Resistance firing circuits

Resistance-Capacitance Firing
Circuits

UJT triggering
Resistance firing circuits
 Working of R triggering circuit
• R2 – Variable resistance
• R1-Stabilizing resistance
• R- offers gate voltage
• D-for forward conduction
• Vg-gate to cathode voltage
• Vgt- threshold voltage
• VT-voltage across the
switch
Vgp <
Vgt
Vgp = Vgt
Vgp > Vgt
Vgp > Vgt
Resistance-Capacitance Firing Circuits

 RC-Half-Wave Triggering Circuit

 RC-Full-Wave Triggering Circuit
RC-Half-Wave Triggering Circuit
High value of R
Low Value of R
RC Full-Wave Triggering Circuit
High Value of R
Low value of R
UJT Triggering
Generation of output pulses
Effect of source impedance of 1-phase
converter
88