Manufacturing Processes,

Planning & Systems

 Polymers
 Organic materials, easily molded by mechanical or chemical action to give non-crystalline
substances that are solid at ordinary temperatures
 High toughness, water & electrical resistance, ease of fabrication & remarkable colour range
 Natural plastics are lac, resin, casein. Synthetic plastics/resins are prepared artificially
formaldehydes, polystyrenes, acrylics etc
 The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, which
is applied to any material which undergoes a permanent change of shape (plastic
deformation) when strained beyond a certain point.
 There are two types of plastics: thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers. Thermoplastics
will soften and melt if enough heat is applied; examples are polyethylene, polystyrene,
polyvinyl chloride and polytetrafluoroethylene. Thermosets can melt and take shape once;
after they have solidified, they stay solid.
 The use of plastics is constrained chiefly by their organic chemistry, which seriously limits
their hardness, density, and their ability to resist heat, organic solvents, oxidation, and
ionizing radiation. In particular, most plastics will melt or decompose when heated to a few
hundred degrees Celsius. While plastics can be made electrically conductive to some extent,
they are still no match for metals like copper or aluminum. Plastics are still too expensive to
replace wood, concrete and ceramic in bulky items like ordinary buildings, bridges, dams,
pavement, and railroad ties.
 Plastics can be classified by chemical structure, namely the molecular units that make up the
polymer's backbone and side chains. Some important groups in these classifications are the
acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes, and halogenated plastics. Plastics can also be
classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as condensation, polyaddition
and cross-linking.
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Polymers
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 A thermosetting plastic, also known as a thermoset, is polymer
material that irreversibly cures. The cure may be done through heat
(generally above 200 °C (392 °F)), through a chemical reaction
(two-part epoxy, for example), or irradiation such as electron beam
processing.

 Thermoset materials are usually liquid or malleable prior to curing

and designed to be molded into their final form, or used as
adhesives. Others are solids like that of the molding compound used
in semiconductors and integrated circuits (IC's).

 A thermosetting polymer is a pre-polymer in a soft solid or viscous

state that changes irreversibly into an infusible, insoluble polymer
network by curing. Curing can be induced by the action of heat or
suitable radiation, or both. A cured thermosetting polymer is called
a thermoset
 Polymers
 Some examples of thermosets are:
 Polyester fiberglass systems: (SMC Sheet molding compounds and BMC Bulk molding
compounds)
 Vulcanized rubber
 Bakelite, a phenol-formaldehyde resin (used in electrical insulators and plasticware)
 Duroplast, light but strong material, similar to Bakelite (used for making car parts)
 Urea-formaldehyde foam (used in plywood, particleboard and medium-density fibreboard)
 Melamine resin (used on worktop surfaces)
 Epoxy resin (used as an adhesive and in fibre reinforced plastics such as glass reinforced
plastic and graphite-reinforced plastic)
 Polyimides (used in printed circuit boards and in body parts of modern airplanes)
 Cyanate Esters or Polycyanurates for electronics applications with high demands on
dielectric properties and high glass temperature requirements in composites
 Mold or Mold Runners (the black plastic part in Integrated Circuits (IC) or semiconductors)
 Some methods of molding thermosets are:
 Reactive injection molding (used for objects like milk bottle crates)
 Extrusion molding (used for making pipes, threads of fabric and insulation for electrical
cables)
 Compression molding (used to shape most thermosetting plastics)
 Spin casting (used for producing fishing lures and jigs, gaming miniatures, figurines,
emblems as well as production and replacement parts)

Polymers
Thermoset, or thermosetting, plastics are synthetic materials that strengthen during being
heated, but cannot be successfully remolded or reheated after their initial heat-forming.
This is in contrast to thermoplastics, which soften when heated and harden and strengthen
after cooling. Thermoplastics can be heated, shaped and cooled as often as necessary
without causing a chemical change, while thermosetting plastics will burn when heated
after the initial molding. Additionally, thermoplastics tend to be easier to mold than
thermosetting plastics, which also take a longer time to produce (due to the time it takes to
cure the heated material). Thermosetting plastics, however, have a number of advantages.
Unlike thermoplastics, they retain their strength and shape even when heated. This makes
thermosetting plastics well-suited to the production of permanent components and large,
solid shapes. Additionally, these components have excellent strength attributes (although
they are brittle), and will not become weaker when the temperature increases. Thermosets
plastic products are typically produced by heating liquid or powder within a mold, allowing
the material to cure into its hardened form. These products can be removed from the mold
even without allowing it to cool. The reaction used to produce thermosetting plastic
products is not always the result of heating, and is sometimes performed by chemical
interaction between specialized materials. Typical types of thermosetting plastics are
epoxies, polyesters, silicones and phenolics. Vulcanized rubber is also an excellent example
of a thermosetting plastic; anyone who has ever driven an automobile can attest to the
properties of a superheated tire—it burns but does not mold into a new shape.
Each type of thermosetting plastic has a unique set of properties. Epoxies, for example,
exhibit elasticity and exceptional chemical resistance, and are relatively easy to cure.
Phenolics, while fairly simple to mold, are brittle, strong and hard. Because of their wide
range of characteristics, thermosetting plastics find use in an extensive variety of
applications, from electrical insulators to car bodies.
 Polymers
 Thermoplastics can go through melting/freezing cycles repeatedly and the
fact that they can be reshaped upon reheating gives them their name. This
quality makes thermoplastics recyclable. The processes required for
recycling vary with the thermoplastic. The plastics used for soda bottles are
a common example of thermoplastics that can be and are widely recycled.

 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

 Acrylic (PMMA)
 Celluloid
 Cellulose acetate
 Cycloolefin Copolymer (COC)
 Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate (EVA)
 Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH)
 Fluoroplastics (PTFE, alongside with FEP, PFA, CTFE, ECTFE, ETFE)
 Ionomers
 Polymers
 Kydex, a trademarked acrylic/PVC alloy
 Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP)
 Polyacetal (POM or Acetal)
 Polyacrylates (Acrylic)
 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN or Acrylonitrile)
 Polyamide (PA or Nylon)
 Polyamide-imide (PAI)
 Polyaryletherketone (PAEK or Ketone)
 Polybutadiene (PBD)
 Polybutylene (PB)
 Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) Acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS)
 Polymers
 Acrylic (PMMA)
 Celluloid
 Cellulose acetate
 Cycloolefin Copolymer (COC)
 Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate (EVA)
 Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH)
 Fluoroplastics (PTFE, alongside with FEP, PFA,
CTFE, ECTFE, ETFE)
 Ionomers
 Kydex, a trademarked acrylic/PVC alloy
 Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP)
 Polymers
 Polyacetal (POM or Acetal)
 Polyacrylates (Acrylic)
 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN or Acrylonitrile)
 Polyamide (PA or Nylon)
 Polyamide-imide (PAI)
 Polyaryletherketone (PAEK or Ketone)
 Polybutadiene (PBD)
 Polybutylene (PB)
 Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polystyrene (PS)
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Common plastics and uses
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Food containers, appliances, car fenders (bumpers), plastic pressure
pipe systems.
 Polystyrene (PS)
 Packaging foam, food containers, disposable cups, plates, cutlery, CD
and cassette boxes.
 High impact polystyrene (HIPS)
 Fridge liners, food packaging, vending cups.
 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
 Electronic equipment cases (e.g., computer monitors, printers,
keyboards), drainage pipe.
 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
 Carbonated drinks bottles, jars, plastic film, microwavable packaging.
 Polyester (PES)
 Fibers, textiles.
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 Polyamides (PA) (Nylons)
 Fibers, toothbrush bristles, fishing line, under-the-hood car engine moldings.
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
 Plumbing pipes and guttering, shower curtains, window frames, flooring.
 Polyurethanes (PU)
 Cushioning foams, thermal insulation foams, surface coatings, printing rollers.
(Currently 6th or 7th most commonly used plastic material, for instance the
most commonly used plastic found in cars).
 Polycarbonate (PC)
 Compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security windows, traffic lights, lenses.
 Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) (Saran)
 Food packaging.
 Polyethylene (PE)
 Wide range of inexpensive uses including supermarket bags, plastic bottles.
 Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PC/ABS)
 A blend of PC and ABS that creates a stronger plastic. Used in car interior and
exterior parts, and mobile phone bodies.
 Polymers
Special purpose plastics
 Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)
 Contact lenses, glazing (best known in this form by its various trade
names around the world; e.g., Perspex, Oroglas, Plexiglas), aglets,
fluorescent light diffusers, rear light covers for vehicles.
 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
 Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick
surfaces for frying pans, plumber's tape and water slides. It is more
commonly known as Teflon.
 Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) (Polyetherketone)
 Strong, chemical- and heat-resistant thermoplastic, biocompatibility
allows for use in medical implant applications, aerospace moldings.
One of the most expensive commercial polymers.
 Polyetherimide (PEI) (Ultem)
 A high temperature, chemically stable polymer that does not
crystallize.
 Polymers
 Phenolics (PF) or (phenol formaldehydes)
 High modulus, relatively heat resistant, and excellent fire resistant polymer. Used for
insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products (e.g., Formica), thermally
insulation foams. It is a thermosetting plastic, with the familiar trade name Bakelite,
that can be molded by heat and pressure when mixed with a filler-like wood flour or can
be cast in its unfilled liquid form or cast as foam (e.g., Oasis). Problems include the
probability of moldings naturally being dark colors (red, green, brown), and as
thermoset it is difficult to recycle.
 Urea-formaldehyde (UF)
 One of the aminoplasts and used as a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics. Used as a
wood adhesive (for plywood, chipboard, hardboard) and electrical switch housings.
 Melamine formaldehyde (MF)
 One of the aminoplasts, and used as a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics, for
instance in moldings (e.g., break-resistance alternatives to ceramic cups, plates and
bowls for children) and the decorated top surface layer of the paper laminates (e.g.,
Formica).
 Polylactic acid (PLA)
 A biodegradable, thermoplastic found converted into a variety of aliphatic polyesters
derived from lactic acid which in turn can be made by fermentation of various
agricultural products such as corn starch, once made from dairy products.
 Plastarch material
 Biodegradable and heat resistant, thermoplastic composed of modified corn starch.
 Polymers
 Compression molding
 Suitable for both the types of plastics
 Continuous application of pressure & heat till the mold forms for thermosetting plastics & a chilling process for
thermoplastics plastic old setting
 Compression Molding is a process in which a molding polymer is squeezed into a preheated mold taking a shape
of the mold cavity and performing curing due to heat and pressure applied to the material.
 A pre-weighed amount of a polymer mixed with additives and fillers (charge) is placed into the lower half of the
mold.
 The charge may be in form of powders, pellets, putty-like masses or pre-formed blanks.
 The charge is usually preheated prior to placement into the mold. Preheated polymer becomes softer resulting in
shortening the molding cycle time.
 The upper half of the mold moves downwards, pressing on the polymer charge and forcing it to fill the mold
cavity.
 The mold, equipped with a heating system, provides curing (cross-linking) of the polymer (if thermoset is
processed).
 The mold is opened and the part is removed from it by means of the ejector pin.
 If thermosetting resin is molded, the mold may be open in hot state – cured thermosets maintain their shape and
dimensions even in hot state.
 If thermoplastic is molded, the mold and the molded part are cooled down before opening.
 Compression Molding cycle time is about 1-6 min, which is longer than Injection Molding cycle. The method is
suitable for molding large flat or moderately curved parts.

 Materials commonly processed by Compression Molding are:

 Epoxies (EP)
 Urea Formaldehyde (UF)
 Melamine Formaldehyde (MF)
 Phenolics (PF)
 Compression Molding is used for manufacturing electrical wall receptacles, brush and mirror handles, meter cases,
trays, circuit breakers, cookware knobs, clothes dryer blower fan blade, electronic and cooking utensils, milling
machine adjustment wheel, automotive parts, water testing equipment buttons, television cabinets, dinnerware,
appliance housings, radio cases, aircraft main power terminal housing, hoods, pot handles, spoilers, electric plugs
and sockets, fenders, dinnerware plates, scoops.
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 Transfer molding
 Transfer Molding (Resin Transfer Molding) is a process in which a pre-weighed amount of a polymer is preheated in
a separate chamber (transfer pot) and then forced into a preheated mold through a sprue, taking a shape of the
mold cavity and performing curing due to heat and pressure applied to the material. The method is used primarily
for molding thermosetting resins (thermosets), but some thermoplastic parts may also be produced by Transfer
Molding. The picture below illustrates the Transfer Molding Process. The method uses a split mold and a third plate
equipped with a plunger mounted in a hydraulic press. The method combines features of both Compression Molding
(hydraulic pressing and the same molding materials - thermosets) and Injection Molding (ram-plunger and filling the
mold through a sprue).
 A pre-weighed amount of a polymer mixed with additives and fillers (charge) is placed into the transfer pot.
 The charge may be in form of powders, pellets, putty-like masses or pre-formed blanks.
 The charge is heated in the pot where the polymer softens.
 The plunger, mounted on the top plate, moves downwards, pressing on the polymer charge and forcing it to fill the
mold cavity through the sprue.
 The mold, equipped with a heating system, provides curing (cross-linking) of the polymer (if thermoset is
processed).
 The mold is opened and the part is removed from it by means of the ejector pin.
 If thermosetting resin is molded, the mold may be open in hot state – cured thermosets maintain their shape and
dimensions even in hot state.
 If thermoplastic is molded, the mold and the molded part are cooled down before opening.
 The scrap left on the pot bottom (cull), in the sprue and in the channels is removed. Scrap of thermosetting
polymers is not recyclable.
 Transfer Molding cycle time is shorter than Compression Molding cycle but longer than Injection Molding cycle.
 The method is capable to produce more complicated shapes than Compression Molding but not as complicated as
Injection Molding. Transfer Molding is suitable for molding with ceramic or metallic inserts which are placed in the
mold cavity. When the heated polymer fills the mold it forms bonding with the insert surface. Transfer molding of
thermosets is used for molding parts encapsulating metal inserts, wear plates, pins, studs, electronic components
with molded terminals. Transfer molding is also used for manufacturing radio and television cabinets and car body
shells.
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 Injection molding
 Similar to die casting metal. Pellets are fed into heated cylinder where they are melted.
 The screw rotates much like extrusion molder (it moves back as material in front of it are melted)
then it rams forward pushing the melted material into the die.
 Most wide spread technique for making 3-D configurations. Uses either reciprocating screw or
reciprocating plunger (RAM). Rated by clamping pressure of die
 Injection Molding is a process in which molten polymer is forced under high pressure into a mold
cavity through an opening (sprue).
 Polymer material in form of pellets is fed into an Injection Molding machine through a hopper. The
material is then conveyed forward by a feeding screw and forced into a split mold, filling its cavity
through a feeding system with sprue gate and runners.
 Injection Molding machine is similar to Extruder. The main difference between the two machines is
in screw operation. In extruder screw rotates continuously providing output of continuous long
product (pipe, rod, sheet). Screw of injection molding machine is called reciprocating screw since it
not only rotates but also moves forward and backward according to the steps of the molding cycle.
 It acts as a ram in the filling step when the molten polymer is injected into the mold and then it
retracts backward in the molding step.
 Heating elements, placed over the barrel, soften and melt the polymer. The mold is equipped with
a cooling system providing controlled cooling and solidification of the material.
 The polymer is held in the mold until solidification and then the mold opens and the part is
removed from the mold by ejector pins.
 Injection Molding is used mainly for Thermoplastics, but Elastomers and Thermosets are also may
be extruded. In this case cross-linking occurs during heating and melting of the material in the
heated barrel.
 Polymers
 Injection Molding is highly productive method
providing high accuracy and control of shape
of the manufactured parts. The method is
profitable in mass production of large number
of identical parts. Thermoplastics commonly
used in Injection Molding are as follows:
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polycarbonate (PC)
 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS)
 Nylon 6 (N6)
 Injection Molding is used for manufacturing
DVDs, pipe fittings, battery casings, toothbrush
bases, bottle lids, disposable razors,
automobile bumpers and dash boards, power-
tool housing, television cabinets, electrical
switches, telephone handsets, automotive
power brake, automotive fascias, transmission,
and electrical parts, mirror housings, steam
irons, washer pumps, spoilers, butter tubs,
moisture vaporizers, yogurt containers, toilet
seats, cell-phone housings, cradles or bases for
personal digital assistants, case of a notebook-
computer, computer mouse, electrical
connector housings, lawn chairs, automotive
ashtrays, and cookware appliance handles and
knobs, aerosol caps, household items, bottle
caps, toys.
Polymers
 Polymers
 Extrusion is a process of manufacturing long
products of constant cross-section (rods, sheets,
pipes, films, wire insulation coating) forcing
soften polymer through a die with an opening.
 Polymer material in form of pellets is fed into an
extruder through a hopper. The material is then
conveyed forward by a feeding screw and forced
through a die, converting to continuous polymer
product.
 Heating elements, placed over the barrel, soften
and melt the polymer. The temperature of the
material is controlled by thermocouples.
 The product going out of the die is cooled by
blown air or in water bath.
 Extrusion of polymers (in contrast to extrusion
of metals) is continuous process lasting as long
as raw pellets are supplied.
 Extrusion is used mainly for Thermoplastics, but
Elastomers and Thermosets are also may be
extruded. In this case cross-linking forms during
heating and melting of the material in the
extruder.
 The thermoplastic extruded products may be
further formed by the Thermoforming method.
 Polymers
 Thermoforming is a process of shaping flat thermoplastic sheet which
includes two stages: softening the sheet by heating, followed by forming it
in the mold cavity.
 Elastomers and Thermosets can not be formed by the Thermoforming
methods because of their cross-linked structure – they do not soften when
heated.
 Thermoplastics which may be processed by the thermoforming method are:
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polystyrene (PS)
 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
 Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
 High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
 Cellulose Acetate
 Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)
 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS)
 Thermoforming is widely used in the food packaging industry for
manufacturing ice cream and margarine tubs, meat trays microwave
containers, snack tubs sandwich packs etc.
 Thermoforming is also used for manufacturing some pharmaceutical and
electronic articles, small tools, fasteners, toys, boat hulls, blister and skin
packs.
 Polymers
 The process involves shaping a
preheated thermoplastic sheet
by means of vacuum produced
in the mold cavity space.
 The atmospheric pressure
forces the soft sheet to deform
in conformity with the cavity
shape.
 When the plastic comes into
the contact with the mold
surface it cools down and
hardens.
 Polymers
 The process involves
shaping a preheated
thermoplastic sheet by
means of air pressure.
 The air pressure forces
the soft sheet to deform
in conformity with the
cavity shape.
 When the plastic comes
into the contact with the
mold surface it cools
down and hardens.
 Polymers
 The process involves shaping a
preheated thermoplastic sheet
by means of a direct
mechanical force.
 A core plug (positive mold)
forces the soft sheet to fill the
space between the plug and
the negative mold.
 The process provides precise
dimensional tolerance and
surface detailing.
 Polymer
 Blow Molding is a process in which a heated hollow thermoplastic
tube (parison) is inflated into a closed mold conforming the shape of
the mold cavity.
 The most widely used materials for Blow Molding are:
 Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
 Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET)
 Disposable containers of various sizes and shapes, drums, recyclable
bottles, automotive fuel tanks, storage tanks, globe light fixtures,
toys, tubs, small boats are produced by Blow Molding method.
 There are three principal techniques of Blow Molding, differing in the
method by which parisons are prepared:
 Extrusion Blow Molding
 Injection Blow Molding
 Stretch Blow Molding
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 Extrusion Blow Molding involves
manufacture of parison by conventional
extrusion method using a die similar to
that used for extrusion pipes. Extrusion
Blow Molding is commonly used for mass
production of plastic bottles.
 The parison is extruded vertically in
downward direction between two mold
halves.
 When the parison reaches the required
length the two mold halves close resulting
in pinching the top of parison end and
sealing the blow pin in the bottom of the
parison end.
 Parison is inflated by air blown through the
blow pin, taking a shape conforming that
of the mold cavity. The parison is then cut
on the top.
 The mold cools down, its halves open, and
the final part is removed.
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 Injection Blow Molding
 In Injection Blow Molding method a parison is produced by
injecting a polymer into a hot injection mold around a blow tube
or core rod.
 Then the blow tube together with the parison is removed from
the injection mold and transferred to a blow mold.
 Following operations are similar to those in the extrusion
blowing molding.
 Injection Blow Molding is more accurate and controllable process
as compared to the Extrusion Blow Molding.
 It allows producing more complicated products from a wider
range of polymer materials.
 However production rate of Injection Blow Molding method is
lower than that of Extrusion Blow Molding.
 Polymers
 Stretch Blow Molding
 Stretch Blow Molding is similar to Injection blow
Molding.
 Stretch Blow Molding involves injection molding of a
parison, which is then stretched in the downward
direction by means of the blow tube.
 The extended parison is then inflated in a blow mold.
 In this method biaxial molecular orientation is
produced. The specific molecular orientation provides
higher mechanical strength, rigidity and transparency
of the material.
 Material, commonly used in this method is
Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET).
 Stretch Blow Molding is used for manufacturing
containers for carbonated beverages.
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 Reaction Injection Molding (RIM) – Two reactant liquids are

heated and brought together under high pressure. A
combination of compression molding & injection molding.