Water Treatment Processes

Water Treatment Processes
Water Treatment Plant

Operation
Water Treatment Processes
 Section 1: Water Treatment Concerns
 Section 2: Well Considerations
 Section 3: Conventional Water System
Processes
 Section 4: Disinfection By-Product Control
 Section 5: Corrosion Control
 Section 6: Demineralization Processes
 Section 7: Coagulation Process Control
 Section 8: Water Softening
Florida Rural Water Association 2
Water Treatment Plant Operation
Section 1:
Water Treatment Concerns
 Microbial Contamination Concerns
 Barriers to Contaminants Reaching the
Public
 Where Contamination Comes From
 Bacterial Indicators and Pathogens
 Primary Standards
 Secondary Standards

Microbial Contamination is Primary
Concern of Water Operators
Coliform bacteria
Common in the environment and are generally not harmful but their
presence in drinking water indicates that the water may be contaminated
and can cause disease.
Fecal Coliform and E coli
Bacteria whose presence indicates that the water may be contaminated
with human or animal wastes. Microbes in these wastes can cause
short-term effects, such as diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches, or
other symptoms.
Turbidity
Has no health effects. However, turbidity can interfere with disinfection
and provide a medium for organisms that include bacteria, viruses, and
parasites that can cause symptoms such as nausea, cramps, diarrhea,
and associated headaches.
Multiple Barrier Approach
Source: Treatment: Distribution:

Selection and Methods and Maintenance
Protection Efficiencies and Monitoring
Where Contamination Comes
From
Condition Test For:
Reoccurring Gastro-illness* Coliform in Drinking Water
Pipeline Failure pH, Lead, and Copper
Nearby Agriculture Nitrates, Pesticides and Coliform
Nearby Mining Metals and pH
Nearby Landfill VOCs, TDS, Chlorides, & Sulfate
Nearby Fueling VOCs
Bad Taste/Odors Hydrogen Sulfide and Iron
Stains Clothes/Plumbing Hydrogen Sulfide and Iron
Scaly Residue Hardness
* Multiple Sources, ie. runoff, septic tanks, CAFOs
Microbial Contaminants found in
Surface Water or UDI Sources
Cryptosporidium and Giardia
Parasites that enters lakes and rivers through
sewage and animal waste. These typically
cause mild gastrointestinal diseases.
However, the disease can be severe or fatal
for people with severely weakened immune
systems. EPA and CDC have prepared
advice for those with severely compromised
immune systems who are concerned about
these organisms.
Some Facts About Bacteria
 Bacteria are widely distributed on earth
 They have been found 4 miles above earth and 3
miles below sea sediments.
 One gram of fertile soil contains up to 100,000,000
bacteria.
 Bacteria are inconceivably small and measured in
microns. One micron is equal to 1/1,000,000 of a
meter.
 During the rapid growth phase bacteria undergo
fission (cell division) about every 20 to 30 minutes.
 One bacterial cell after 36 hrs of uncontrolled
growth, could fill approximately 200 dump trucks.

Bacteria and Pathogenic
Indicators in Water Treatment
Total Ferment
Coliform Lactose @ 35OC
Include Citrobacter
Species Enterobacter
of Klebsiella
Genera E. Coli
Fecal Grow at 44OC
Coliform Produce Enzyme
E. Coli More Specific
Indicator of
Contamination Photo: CDC. E. coli 0157:H7
HPC < 500 11 of 140 cause gastrointestinal disease
colonies/ml
Identifying Source of
Contaminants

Primary or Inorganic
Contaminants
Mineral-Based Compounds
These include metals, nitrates, and asbestos.

These contaminants are naturally-occurring in
some water, but can also get into water
through farming, chemical manufacturing,
and other human activities. Potential health
effects include learning disorders,
kidney and liver damage. EPA has set
legal limits on 15 inorganic contaminants.
Primary Standards and their
Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs)
Contaminant MCL (mg/l)

Arsenic 0.010
Asbestos 7 (MFL)
Fluoride 4.0
Mercury 0.002
Nickel 0.1
Nitrate 10
Nitrite 1
Total Nitrate+Nitrite 10
Sodium 160
Disinfectants and Disinfection
By-Products
 Disinfectants are water additives that are
used to control microbes
 Disinfection By-products are created when
chlorine is added in the presence of naturally
occurring low levels of organic materials
found in drinking water
 Both are regulated because of health
concerns

Secondary Standards and
Concerns
 These compounds cause aesthetic
concerns such as taste, odor and color.
 EPA recommends MCL limits
 Some states such as Florida have set
regulatory limits on these contaminants

Secondary Standard
Maximum Contaminant Levels
Contaminant MCL (mg/l)
Chloride 250
Sulfate 250
TDS 500
Copper 1.0
Fluoride 2.0
Iron 0.30
Manganese 0.05
Silver 0.1
pH (MRCL) 6.5 to 8.5
Color (MCRL) 15 cfu
Protecting Well by Grouting
 Prevent movement of
water between aquifer
formations
 Preserve quality of
producing zones
 Preserve Yield
 Prevent water intrusion
from surface
 Protect Casing against
Pressure Testing of Grout Seal @ Corrosion!
~10 psi for 1 hr. Should be
Performed.
Section 2
Well Considerations
 Floridan Aquifer
 Well Contaminants
 Preventing Contamination at the Well
Head

Floridian Aquifer Across Florida

Well Source Water Parameters
Quality and Quantity Dictates Depth of Well
 TDS  pH
 Total Hardness  Corrosivity
 Total Fe and Mn  CO2
 Chlorides & Sulfates  H2S
 Total Alkalinity
 Fluoride
 Nitrate

Preventing Contamination at
the Well Head
# Observation Likely Pathway
1 Septic tanks, Through Surface Strata

broken storm or
san. pipes, ponds
2 Drainage up-hill Surface water runoff
3 Well subject to Surface water transport of

flooding contaminants
4 Casing termination Must be 1’ and above 100
20
yr flood plane
the Well Head (continued)
5 Area around well is Corroded Casing Pipe

wet
6 Possible Abandoned Surface water intrusion
wells in area from contaminated source
7 Sanitary condition Contaminated water
unacceptable intrusion
8 Cracking in Well Contaminated water
Slab intrusion
9 Evidence of Algae Birds and insects attracted

or Mold on Slab by moist conditions
10 Poor Drainage Surface water intrusion
from contaminated source
11 Seal water Draining Contaminated water
into well head entering borehole
12 Well Seal damaged Contaminated water
intrusion
13 Fittings pointing Contaminated Water

upward intrusion into casing
14 Well vent not Contaminated Water
properly installed intrusion into casing
15 Check Valve absent Contaminated water back-
or not working flowing into casing
16 Cavitation or water Ck. Valve damage & water
hammer back-flowing into casing
17 Well Site Security Contaminated Water from

Compromised undesirable activities
18 Livestock or wild Animal source of
animals close by Contamination
19 Surface water Indicator organisms, color,
evidence ID temp and TOC contributing
20 Several wells One well is more likely to
available contribute than others
21 Intermittent Well Contaminated occurring

Operation from long-term biological
activity
22 Wet or extreme Contamination from run-off
weather events or from higher pumping
levels.

Section 3:
Conventional Water System Processes
 TOC in Source Water

 Disinfection and Uses of Chlorine
 Aeration and Aerator Types
 Iron and Hydrogen Sulfide Control
 Filtration
 Sedimentation

Organic Carbon (TOC) in
Natural Waters mg/l
Mean Surface Water 3.5
Sea Water
Ground Water
Surface Water Swamp
Wastewater
Wastewater Effluent
.1 .2 .5 1.0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000

Disinfection with Chlorine
 The primary methods of disinfection is the use of

chlorine gas, chloramines, ozone, ultraviolet light,
chlorine dioxide, and hypochlorite.
 Generally Chlorine will be used by small systems and
may be applied as a gas, solid or liquid.
 The most common chlorine application is sodium
hypochlorite or bleach.
 Primary Disinfectants are used to inactivate microbes
and Secondary Disinfectants are used to provide for a
residual chlorine concentration that prevents microbial
regrowth.

Reactions of Chlorine with
Water Constituents
 Reducing Compound (inorganics)
 Production of Chloramines
 Production Chlororganics
 Combined Chlorine
 Breakpoint Chlorination
 Free Chlorine Residual

DISINFECTION
Fe BYPRODUCTS
REMAIN
Mn
Add Dichloromine
H2S
0.6 NH3 0.2
0
Chloromine
0
Breakpoint Chlorination Curve

Other Chlorine Uses
 Chlorine is often used as an oxidant to remove
inorganic impurities such as iron and hydrogen sulfide
 When used in this manner particulate matter is formed
that often must be removed.
 Chlorine is also used to prevent the growth of algae on
tank walls and other surfaces exposed to sunlight and
to prevent bacteria from growing inside filters and
tanks
 Chlorine has been used to remove color, taste and odors
but will produce disinfection by-products which are
regulated

Aeration
 Aeration is generally used in small systems to
remove naturally occurring dissolved gasses
from the water such as CO2 and H2S.
 Aeration may also be used to oxidize iron
which then drops out as precipitate and must
be filtered.
 Special aerators called Packed Towers are
sometimes used to remove VOCs

Cascade Tray Aerator
 Even distribution of
water over top tray
 Loading Rates of 1 to 5
GPM for each sft. of
Tray area.
 Trays ½” openings
perforated bottoms
 Protection from insects
with 24 mesh screen

Forced Draft Aeration
System
 Includes weatherproof
blower in housing
 Counter air through
aerator column
 Includes 24 mesh
screened downturned
inlet/outlet
 Discharges over 5 or
more trays

Packed Tower Odor
Removal System
 Uses Henry’s Law constants
for mass transfer
 Usually requires pilot
testing
 Used to Remove VOCs
below MCL
 Col to Packing >7:1 ratio
 Air to water at pk >25:1
with max 80:1
 Susceptible to Fouling from
CaCO3 > 40 PPM
Iron Problems - Most Prevalent in Unconfined,
Surficial, and Biscayne Aquifers
 Iron dissolved by reaction
with CO2
 Iron from well sources
will be in a dissolved state
 When exposed to O2
precipitants form
 Visible as red and brown
color
 Will stain fixtures and
clothes
 Imparts taste and odor
Iron, Turbidity/TOC
Relationships

Dissolved Iron Problems
 Soluble iron passing into the water
distribution system will encourage the
growth of iron bacteria
 Precipitates will form in the distribution
system
 Iron particles will stain clothes and
fixtures (Red Water Complaints)

Treatment of Dissolved Iron
Type of Treatment Removal Considerations
Oxidation w/ Chlorine Max. 0.1 mg/l w/o filtration

Greensand Filter 0 – 10 mg/l w/ pH > 6.8
Ion Exchange Softener 0 – 10 mg/l
Phosphate Addition 0 – 2 mg/l

Fe Aeration
++
Plot of
pH vs. Time for
Iron Removal at
90%
Efficiency
(min 30 minutes
detention) Florida Rural Water Association 40
Filtration Requirements for
Iron and Manganese
 Requires bé DEP at > 1.0 mg/l Fe
 Turbidity must be no more than 2 NTUs
above Source Water
 Oxidized particles must generally be
removed
 Anthracite filters are frequently
employed with higher iron content

Hydrogen Sulfide Removal
Techniques (DEP)
Sulfide Recommended Achievable Range
(mg/l) Treatment Process of Removal
< 0.3 Direct Chlorination 100%

> 0.3 Direct Chlorination 100%
(requires filtration)
0.3 to 0.6 Conventional Aeration 50%
0.6 to 3.0 Forced Draft Aeration 90%
> 3.0 Packed Tower Aeration > 90%

Hydrogen Sulfide Removal
Dynamics
Gas Soluble

Clarification
 Clarifiers are often used in water treatment to
allow particles to settle prior to filtration.
 Special clarifiers called “Upflow Clarifiers” are
used in surface water treatment plants that
used coagulants and in softening plants that
use lime. These types of clarifiers perform
several treatment processes in one tank

Causes of Poor Clarifier
Performance
 If Surface water plant flocculators are
not adjusted for rate of flow
 Sludge removal is not routine
 There is no test to control sludge
quantities
 Settled water turbidities are not measured
or are not measured routinely (e.g.,
minimum of once per shift)

Filtration
 Filters are primarily used to remove particulate matter
and turbidity from the water.
 The primary types of filters used in water treatment are
Rapid Sand or gravity and Pressure Filters
 Special Membrane Filters are used for Particulate and
Microbial removal.
 Special Filters employ Resins and Media such as
greensand and are used to remove select contaminants
such as iron and manganese. Activated carbon filters are
used to remove organic compounds.

Filter Applications
Nanofiltration

Media Configurations for
Gravity Filters
 Single media (sand)

 Dual Media (sand
and anthracite)
 Mixed or multi-
media (sand,
anthracite and
garnet)

Characteristics of Various Filters
Filter Media Sz Spec Depth Flow Flow

(mm) (in) gpm/sf
Grav
Slow Sand Fine Sand 0.2 2.6 36 – 48 Gravity .05 - .03
Rapid Sand Course Sand 0.35 – 1.0 2.6 24 – 36 Gravity 2– 4
Dual Media Anthracite 0.9 – 1.2 1.4 – 1.6 18 – 24 Gravity 4– 5

Sand 0,4 – 0,55 2.6 6 – 10
Mixed Media Anthracite 0.9 – 1.2 1.4 – 1.6 16.5 Gravity 5
Sand, Garnet 0,4 – 0,55 2.6 9
0.2 4.2 4.5
Diatom. Earth Diatomaceous 0.005 to 1/16 to 1/8 Pressure 0.5 – 5
0,125 or
Vacuum
Pressure All Media Application Pressure 2– 4
49
Calculating Filter Flow Rate
1. Determine Surface Area of Filter
2. Measure Filter Rise with stopwatch and tape
measure (often meters are out of calibration)
Example: 150 sft surface area, 10.7” rise in 20
seconds
(10.7 in / 12 in/ft) x 150 sft x 7.48 gal/cft = 1000 gal.
(20 seconds / 60 min ) = 0.333 min
Flow Rate = 1000 gal / 0.333 min = 20 gpm / sft

150 sf

Causes of Poor
Filter Performance
 Filter Problems: operational, mechanical
equipment failure, media failure
 Turbidity Errors: calibration, air bubbles,
debris
 Chemical Feed Failures: coagulant, coagulant
aid, filter aid
 Poor Water Quality: increased turbidity, algae
 Operating Plant intermittently exceeding peak
loading capacity

Common Filter Operation
Deficiencies
Filters are started dirty Increases in plant flow Filter to waste
(i.e., without rate made with no capability is not being
backwashing consideration of filtered used or not monitored if
water quality utilized
Filters removed from Operations staff Backwash rate too low
service without backwash the filters for longer period or
reducing plant flow, without regard for filter stopped early to
resulting in overload effluent turbidity conserve water
No testing of filters Significant build up of Individual filtered water
resulting in media loss, mudballs in filter media quality is different and
underdrain or support quality is not monitored
gravel damage
Performance following There are no records Calibration procedures
backwash is not available which are not practiced
monitored or recorded. document performance
Filter Integrity Testing
 Evaluates filter media, support gravel and
underdrains
 Check for filter depth, surface cracking,
mudball and segregation
 Media is checked by excavation
 Steel rod is used to probe support gravel
location and uniformity (should vary < 2”)
 Observe clearwell for evidence of media
 Check for uneven flow splitting to filters
Backwash Parameters
 Typically at about 24 hour intervals

 Rate: 15 gpm/sft – 20 gpm/sft
 Expand at min. 25%
 Backwashing Duration: 5 - 10 min.
 Filter to waste for 3 - 5 min.
 Water used for backwashing: 2% - 4% per filter of
total water produced

Sand Filter ~40%
Multimedia ~25%
Deep Bed ~50%
15 to 20
gpm/sft
Min.
Expansion
25%

Determining Backwash
Expansion in Plant
Can be made with tin can lid

Visual Identification of Filter
Problems
 Mudballs – Formed by chemical deposits of
solids during backwashing (leads to coating
of media surfaces)
 Surface Cracking – Caused by compressible
matter around media at surface
 Media Boils – Caused by too rapid of
backwash and displaces gravel support below
 Air Binding – Caused by excessive headloss
(infrequent backwashing) allowing air to
enter media from below

Section 4
Disinfection By-Product Control
 Disinfection By-Product Formation
 Factors Affecting By-Product Formation
 Locating THM and HAA5 Areas
 Formation of THMs and HAA5s
 Controlling Disinfection By-Products
 Importance of Water Age
 Flushing Methods and Benefits

Disinfection By-Product (DBP)
Formation
 Disinfection Byproducts (DBP) are produced by
the reaction of free chlorine with organic material
found in natural waters.
 The amount of organic materials in a natural water
called NOM can be approximated by the amount
of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) present in the
water source.
 NOM consists of various chemical compounds
containing carbon, originating from decayed
natural vegetative matter found in water.
Factors Affecting Disinfection
By-Product Production
 Turbidity and the type of NOM present
 Concentration of Chlorine added
 pH of water
 Bromide Ion Concentration
 Temperature
 Contact Time

Locating TTHM Areas
 High Water Age

 Storage Tanks do not fluctuate
 No / Few Customer Areas
 Stagnant Areas
 Dead Ends
Pipe Tuberculation
 Bad Pipe with Bacterial
Growth producing
 Regrowth Areas Organic Precursors

Locating HAA5 Areas
 Low Demand Areas
 Toward Middle System Areas w/ Stagnant / Low
Water Age
 Areas with No / Little Regrowth
– Eliminate Biodegradation Locations
– Free Chlorine Residuals < 0.2 mg/L
– HPC Data
 No Dead Ends
Formation of DBP in a Water
System
63
Disinfectant and DBP Production in a
Typical Water System
64
DBP Reduction Techniques in a Water
Distribution System
 Reducing detention time in storage

tanks,
 Ensuring turnover in distribution system
 Flushing dead-end lines.

Typical Distribution System
Water Age (Days) in Pipelines
Population Miles of WM Water Age

> 750,000 > 1,000 1 – 7 days
< 100,000 < 400 > 16 days
< 25,000 < 100 12 – 24 days
AWWA: Water Age for Ave and Dead End Conditions

There are Two Types of Flushing
Used by Water Distribution Systems
Conventional Flushing & Unidirectional Flushing

< 2.5 fps velocity that reduces > 2.5 fps velocity that removes
water age, raises disinfectant solid deposits and biofilm from
residual removes coloration pipelines 67
How Often to Flush
• Dead-end mains at least monthly
• Other flushing points at least twice annually
(DEP requires quarterly flushing)
• At intervals necessary to maintain consistent
water quality throughout the distribution
system
• Often enough to maintain adequate disinfection
residuals throughout the distribution system
• Whenever Customer complaints of bad taste,
odor, clarity or turbidity are received (DEP
requirement)
Flushing Benefits Summarized
• Restores disinfectant residual

• Maintains or improves water quality
a. Reduces bacterial growth
b. Reduces customer complaints
• Restores flow and pressure in the distribution system
a. Reduces sediment
b. Reduces corrosion and tuberculation in mains
• Reduces DBP problems and lowers disinfection costs
• Reduces pipeline maintenance costs
• Increases life expectancy of the distribution system
• Typically results in a fire hydrant maintenance program

Section 5
Corrosion Control
 Corrosion Control Methods
 Factors Affecting Corrosion
 Corrosion Tuberculation Example
 pH and Alkalinity Relationships
 Langerlier Index
 Troubleshooting Corrosion Complaints
 Basics of Sequestering
Corrosion and Chemical
Activity
Most all forms of corrosion are chemical
reactions (erosion is the exception)
that require three things:
1. A carrier such as Water that allows the movement of

positively charged ions (from Anode+ to Cathode-)
2. A condition (water metal contact) that allows metals
to disassociate (ionize) and allows electrons to flow
3. An imbalance that favors the transport of metals or
ions to achieve a chemical balance in a water solution.

Corrosion Control Methods
 Corrosion Control is employed in water treatment
to protect pipeline materials, appurtenances and
fittings from leaching problematic (iron) and/or
dangerous inorganic chemicals (lead and copper).
 Three types of treatment are generally used: 1.)
Chemical Adjustment, Water Treatment and
Sequestering
 Protection Measures in water system include the
use of sacrificial metals and electronic cathodic
protection.
Factors Affecting Corrosion
 Water’s pHs
 Water alkalinity
 Solids content
 Temperature
 Materials Used for pipes and other
fittings.

Cathodic Action Resulting in
Tuberculation in Water Pipelines
Inside
Pipe Wall
1.5”
74
Effects of pH on the Rate of Corrosion of
Iron in Water

Relationships between
Alkalinity, pH
A Water can be
Corrosive or
Depositing
based upon it’s
pH and
Alkalinity.

Affects of Raising or Lowering
Alkalinity and CO2 by Chemical Addition

Determining pH of Water
pH = log {2.2 x 10 X (Alkalinity

6 in mg/l as
CaCO3)}
(CO2 in mg/l)
Measured Alkalinity Measured CO2

60 mg/l as CaCO3 = 7.4 mg/l
pH = log {2.2 x 10 6
X 60/7.4 } = 7.25
Approximate pH between 7.0 to 8.0
Use of the Langerlier Index for
Determining Water Stability
 Every water has a particular pH value where
the water will neither deposit scale nor cause
corrosion.
 A stable condition is termed saturation.
 Saturation (pHs), varies depending on
calcium hardness, alkalinity, TDS, and
temperature.
 The Langerlier Index = pH – pHs
Corrosive < LI = 0 > Scale Forming

Recommended Treatment for Corrosive
and Scaling Water based on LI
Saturation Index Description General Recommendation
-5 Severe Corrosion Treatment Recommended
-4 Severe Corrosion Treatment Recommended
-3 Moderate Corrosion Treatment Recommended
-2 Moderate Corrosion Treatment May Be Needed
-1 Mild Corrosion Treatment May Be Needed
-0.5 None- Mild Corrosion Probably No Treatment
0 Near Balanced No Treatment

0.5 Some Faint Coating Probably No Treatment
1 Mild Scale Coating Treatment May Be Needed
2 Mild to Moderate Coatings Treatment May Be Needed
3 Moderate Scale Forming Treatment Advisable
4 Severe Scale Forming Treatment Advisable

Troubleshooting Customer
Complaints caused by Corrosion
Water Characteristic Likely Cause
Red/reddish-brown Water Distribution Pipe Corrosion

Blueish Stains on fixtures Copper Line Corrosion
Black Water Sulfide Corrosion of Iron
Foul Tastes and Odors By-Products of Bacteria
Loss of Pressure Tuberculation
Lack of Hot Water Scaling
Reduced Life of Plumbing Pitting from Corrosion
Tastes Like Garden Hose Backflow From Hose

Sequestering Action of
Poly and Ortho Phosphates

Polyphosphates for Sequestering Soluble
Iron and Manganese after Treatment
 The Polyphosphate, Hexametaphosphate is

commonly used for Sequestering Soluble Iron
and Manganese
 Sequestering is used when soluble Iron and
Manganese exists after treatment; The Agent is
added after sedimentation
 Large doses (>5 mg/l) will soften rust deposits
in pipelines which are transported into homes
 Proper dose is to keep soluble iron and/or
manganese tied up for 4 days
Use of Orthophosphates for
Sequestering
 Orthophosphate is used to sequester iron ions
at pipe surfaces
 The Sequestering forms a protective coating
that prevents further iron migration
 Ortho/Poly Blends provide both sequestering
of soluble iron and iron movement from
pipelines under corrosive conditions

Section 6:
Demineralization Processes
 Basic Demineralization Systems
 RO Operating Considerations
 Pretreatment; Fouling and Scaling
Issues
 Ion Exchange Considerations
 Sodium/Calcium Exchange

Ion Exchange, Membrane
Filtration and Electrodialysis
 Several special treatment processes are used to
remove selected mineral contaminants from the
water. These include Ion Exchange, Membrane
Filtration and Electrodialysis.
 These systems remove selected salts such as
sodium, hardness consisting of Calcium and
Magnesium and removal of selected contaminants
such as Nitrate or Arsenic

Reverse Osmosis (RO)
Treatment Considerations
 Used to Remove Highly Concentrated
Salts (TDS)
 Operating pressure < 400 psi
 Salt Rejection Rates of < 95%
 Turbidity <1 NTU
 Flux Range 15 – 32 GFD (gallons Flux
per day per sq. ft. membrane surface)
Pretreatment Requirements for
Reverse Osmosis Systems
Suspended Particulates Blockage Filtration

Colloidal materials Fouling Coagulation/Filtration
Microbiological Matter Fouling Chlorine
Chlorine Failure GAC or Dechlorination
Carbonates Scaling pH adjust or Softening
Sulfate Scaling Inhibitor or Cation Rem.
Silica Scaling Softening
Iron Scale/Foul Greensand (no aeration)
Hydrogen Sulfide Scale/Foul Degasification
Operating Considerations
Ion Exchange Softening
 Iron and Manganese
 Corrosiveness of Brine Solution
 Pump Strainer
 Fouling of Resin

Optimal Water Characteristics
for Ion Exchange
pH 6.5 – 9.0
NO3 < 5 mg/l
SO4 < 50 mg/l
TDS < 500 mg/l
Turbidity < 0.3 NTU
Selectivity Considerations
S04-2 > NO3-2 > CO3-2 > NO2-2 > CL-1
Sodium Exchange
MCL Considerations
 Sodium provides 100% exchange for Ca++ and Mg++
NaZeolite + Ca++ --> CaZeolite + Na+

and
NaZeolite + Mg++ --> MgZeolite + Na+
 For every grain (17.1 grains = 1 mg/l) of hardness removed from

water, about 8.6 mg/1 of sodium is added.
 Sodium MCL = 160 mg/l - Initial Na water concentration + NaOCl
 5 grains needed for corrosion control (86 mg/l) thus:
source water hardness limit ~ 350 mg/l hardness (~20 grains)
ie. 100% x 5 grains, or 15 grains removed x 8 = 134 mg/l Na
20 grains
Provides 134 mg/l Na and 5 grains or 86 mg/l Hardness
Section 7
Coagulation Processes Control
 Metal Charges and Electron Attraction
 Elemental Weights and Chemical
Formulas
 Particle Chemistry and Colloidal Particles
 The Floc Building Process
 Optimizing the Coagulation Process
 Use of a Jar Test

Periodic Table of the Elements
Valances are shown at the top of the Periodic Table, F

93
is one electron short and Mg has two extra electrons
The Periodic Chart
also Provide the Atomic Weight of an
Element
Atomic Number
8
Includes
Isotopes
Use 16
O Symbol
Oxygen Name
15.99 Atomic Weight

94
Solids and Colloidal Material
Suspended Suspended in the Water and can be
Solids Removed by Conventional Filtration
Colloids Finely Charged Particles that do not
Dissolved
Turbidity The Cloudy Appearance of Water
caused by Suspended Matter and
Colloids
Zeta Potential Electrical Charge of a suspended
particle

Primary Coagulants
 Primary coagulants are lime, aluminum
sulfate (alum), ferrous sulfate, ferric
sulfate and ferric chloride.
 These inorganic salts will react with the
alkalinity in the water to form insoluble
flocs which will trap the suspended
matter in them.

Removal of Colloidal Particles
by Coagulation & Flocculation
Floc Building Process :
 Neutralization of repulsive charges

 Precipitation with sticky flocs
 Bridging of suspended matter
 Providing “agglomeration sites” for larger
floc
 Weighting down of floc particles

Polymers and Ionic Charges
 Cationic +
 *Anionic -
 Nonionic
* Used with Metal

Bridging Action of Cationic Coagulants in water
Polymer with Colloidal
treatment
Particles
Factors Affecting the
Coagulation Process
 pH (pH Range: Al, 5 – 7 ; Fe, 5 – 8)
 Alkalinity of water (> 30 PPM residual)
 Concentration of Salts (affect efficiency)
 Turbidity (constituents and concentration)
 Type of Coagulant used (Al and Fe salts)
 Temperature (colder requires more mixing)
 Adequacy of mixing (dispersion of chemical)

Jar Test Plot for Low Alkalinity
or Low Turbidity Water
 Alum initially reacts
with low alkalinity
 With Ferric Chloride
requires chemical to
reach optimal pH
before reacting
 Adding too much
coagulant increases
turbidity
Section 8:
Hardness and Water Softening
 Hardness Removal by Softening
 Treatment Methods Used to Remove
Hardness
 Alkalinity Definitions
 Alkalinity/Acidity Relationships
 pH and Lime Treatment
 Removal of Color and Organics
 Importance of Recarbonation
Water Hardness
 Hardness in Water causes scaling, causes fibers
in clothes to become brittle and increases the
amount of soap that must be used for washing
 Hardness in water is caused by the water’s
Calcium and Magnesium Content
 Water is considered hard when it has a hardness
concentration of > 100 mg/l expressed as
calcium carbonate equivalent
 Water that hardness < 100 mg/l expressed as
CaCO3 is considered soft
 Hardness can either be removed by water
treatment or sequestered using phosphates
Methods of Removing
Hardness
Treatment Method Hardness Levels
Retained
Lime Softening Solubility Level of
(Chemical Precipitation) about 35 mg/l (CaCO3)
RO (Nanofiltration) 85 – 90% removal
(Membrane Filtration)
Ion Exchange Basically Zero
(Chemical Exchange) Water must be blended
Alkalinity Definitions
 The capacity of water to neutralize acids.
 The measure of how much acid must be added to a
liquid to lower the pH to 4.5
 It is caused by the water’s content of carbonate,
bicarbonate, hydroxide, and occasionally borate,
silicate, and phosphate.
 In natural waters, Alkalinity = Bicarbonate
Hardness = Total Carbonate Hardness

Relationships among pH,
Alkalinity and Indicators
0% 100%
Bicarbonate and
Bicarbonate Carbonate
Carbonate and
CO2 Hydroxide
T Alkalinity
T=0 P Alkalinity
P=0
CaCO3 Mg(OH)2
9.4 10.6
pH 100% 10.2
Types of Alkalinity that can be
Present at pH Values
 Below 4.5 only CO2 present, no Alkalinity
 Between 4.5 to 8.3 only Bicarbonate present
 Between 8.3 to 10.2 Bicarbonate &
Carbonate.
 Between 10.2 to 11.3 Carbonate & Hydroxide
 At 9.4 Calcium Carbonate becomes insoluble

and precipitates
 At 10.6 Magnesium Hydroxide becomes
insoluble and precipitates
Removal of Organics
by Lime Softening Precipitation
Calcium Carbonate 10% to 30% of
Color, TOC & DBP
Magnesium Hydroxide 30% to 60% of
TOC & DBP and
80% of Color
Addition of Alum/Ferric +5% to +15% of
Color, TOC & DBP
Sequential Treatment Additional Removal
Color, TOC and DBP
Recarbonation in Lime
Softening
 Because water has unused lime (calcium
hydroxide) and magnesium hydroxide in
solution at high pH (pH 11), these must be
converted to a stable forms.
 CO2 is added to reduce Ca(OH)2 to CaCO3
which precipitates at about pH 10; additional
CO2 is added to convert Mg(OH)2 to soluble
Mg(HCO3)2 which occurs at a pH of 8.4.
 Reaction must be completed before filtration
so that calcium carbonate will not precipitate
in the filters or carry into distribution system.
Water Treatment Summary
 Effective Water Treatment Requires the
application of accepted principles
 Most Process Problems in Water Treatment
are the result of failure to recognize the
symptoms that result from improper
application or adherence to these factors
 Most treatment plant problems can be
resolved by application of the techniques
presented

Water Treatment Processes

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Water Treatment Processes

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Water Treatment Processes

Water Treatment Plant

Florida Rural Water Association 3

Source: Treatment: Distribution:

Florida Rural Water Association 8

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These include metals, nitrates, and asbestos.

Contaminant MCL (mg/l)

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Quality and Quantity Dictates Depth of Well

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1 Septic tanks, Through Surface Strata

3 Well subject to Surface water transport of

5 Area around well is Corroded Casing Pipe

9 Evidence of Algae Birds and insects attracted

13 Fittings pointing Contaminated Water

17 Well Site Security Contaminated Water from

21 Intermittent Well Contaminated occurring

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 TOC in Source Water

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Surface Water Swamp

.1 .2 .5 1.0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000

 The primary methods of disinfection is the use of

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Breakpoint Chlorination Curve

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Type of Treatment Removal Considerations

Oxidation w/ Chlorine Max. 0.1 mg/l w/o filtration

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< 0.3 Direct Chlorination 100%

0.6 to 3.0 Forced Draft Aeration 90%

> 3.0 Packed Tower Aeration > 90%

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 Single media (sand)

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Filter Media Sz Spec Depth Flow Flow

Rapid Sand Course Sand 0.35 – 1.0 2.6 24 – 36 Gravity 2– 4

Dual Media Anthracite 0.9 – 1.2 1.4 – 1.6 18 – 24 Gravity 4– 5

Flow Rate = 1000 gal / 0.333 min = 20 gpm / sft

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 Typically at about 24 hour intervals

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Can be made with tin can lid

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