Geometric Design of Highways

Road its development
and Geometric design

of highways
Prakash Upadhyaya
Senior Divisional Engineer
Department of Railways
Battisputali, Kathmandu
ROAD
Road
• Consequence of civilization
• Communication between
neighbours
• Better and speedier
communication facilities
• Prosperity of a nation
Road
• The invention of the wheel over 5000
years ago made necessary the
construction of special hard surfacing
capable for carrying concentrated
and greater loads.
• Road have been discovered
• Stone paved causeway constructed
some 5000 years ago
Road
• To facilitate to conveyance of a huge
limestone blocks used in the building
of the grate Pyramid.
• Indian ruler Chandragupta who, in
the period 322-298 BC, constructed
2400 km road
DEVELOPMENT IN
ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Development in road construction
• End of 18 th century considerable

emphasis given for improvement of
communication
• Engineering skill was applied to the
construction of roads
– Repair
– Heap more soil on the top
– drain
• The Inspector General of road in

Pierre Tresaguet
France between 1775 and 1785.

• Importance of moisture content of the
sub soil and its effect upon the
stability of the road foundation
• He made provision of drainage
• He enunciated the necessity of routine

planned maintenance instead of
Pierre Tresaguet
intermittent repair
• The father of modern Highway
Engineering
•Robert • Thomos Telford was first civil engineer

Phillips with a remarkable ability for road
•John construction
Metcalf • Telford was an architect, builder of
•Thomas canals and ports, and bridge designer
Telford and constructor who was also a
perfectionist in road making
• Macadam is known for the economical
John Loudon Macadam
method of road construction

• Two fundamental principles:
– That it is the native soil which really
(McAdam)
supports the weight of the traffic; that while

it is preserved in a dry state it will carry any
weight without sinking
– To put broken stone upon a road, which
shall unite by its own angles so form a solid
hard surface.
• Foundation (Sub-grade) was shaped to
John Loudon Macadam
the intended surface camber

– To facilitate good side drainage to the
(McAdam)
foundation
– Uniform construction thickness
throughout the entire width of the road
• Macadam also advocate that roads be
constructed by skilled labour using the best
instruments.
John Loudon Macadam
• Tresaguet can be given the credit of

bringing science to road construction
(McAdam)
• John Loudon Macadam was the first

highway engineer
• Prior to the Industrial Revolution,
travel was:
Public Transport
– By horse
Development
– By foot
• Middle of the 16 th century first wheel
coach appeared
• 4 July 1829 first mass public transport
started with 20-passenger horse
‘omnibus’
Public Transport
Development
• Asphalt, which was first utilized as a

road surface in Paris in the 1850.
• This was considered a major advance in
Highway Engineering.
• 30 August 1860 saw the beginning of
the end of the horse bus when a horse
tram services initiated. It could carry
Public Transport
Development
more people more comfortably and

more quickly than could the horse bus
• In October 1885, Karl Benz completed
petrol driven motor car
• 12 April 1903 saw the first motor bus
service.
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Road Development in
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Road Development in
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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAYS
Geometric design of highways
• Geometric design is concern with

relating the physical element of the
highway to the requirements of the
driver and vehicle.
• It is concern with:
– those elements which make up the
visible features of the roadway
– it dose not include the structural design
of the facility
• Features which have to be considered

in geometric design are:
– Horizontal and Vertical curvature
Features – Cross section elements
– Sight distance considerations
– Highway grades
– Intersection elements
• Design of these features is

influenced by:
– Driver behavior and psychology
– Vehicle characteristics and trend
Influence
– Traffic speed and volumes
• Proper geometric design :

Proper
geometric
– Reduce number and severity of
design highway accidents
– Ensure high traffic flow with minimum
of delay to vehicles
• The aim should be to design a facility that
blends harmoniously with the
topography, and not one that leaves an
ugly scar on an otherwise pleasant
landscape
Proper
• When geometric design is
geometric improperly carried out, it may
design
result in early obsolescence of
the new highway, with
consequent economic loss to
the community.
Design
• Most important consideration
Speed in geometric design is the
design speed of the highway
• The design speed of a highway
is a ‘design criterion’ that is
aimed at providing a consistent
and coordinated alignment.
Design
• Main factors affected the
Speed choice of design speed :
– Type of Highway
– Environmental terrain
Design
• Qualifying factors are:
Speed – Traffic volume and characteristics
– Cost of land
– Speed capabilities of vehicles
– Aesthetic features
Design
• The choice of design speed
Speed effected upon the design of :
– Horizontal and vertical curvature
– Safe stopping and overtaking sight
distance
– Acceptable highway grades
– Highway cost
Design
• Generally, the design speeds
Speed of highway are chosen by
administrative / political
decision.
• Design speed (Geometric
design standards) of highway
vary from country to country.
Traffic
• ‘design flow’ and ‘design
flow and capacity’ are the ability of a
design
capacit
road to accommodate traffic
y under given circumstances.
• It is the number of vehicles that
can pass a given point in unit
time. Vehicle per hour
Traffic
• The term ‘concentration’ or
flow and ‘density’ is define as the
design
capacit
number of vehicles occupying a
y unit length of a traffic lane at a
given instant.
• The concentration per lane
increases, the average speed of
traffic decreases.
Average Speed (km/hr)

Traffic 100
flow and
80
design
capacit
60
y
40
20
0 100 200 300 400 500

Concentration (veh/km)
Traffic 2.50
flow and
2.00
design
Flow (veh/hr*103)
capacit
1.50
y
1.00
0.50
0 100 200 300 400 500

Concentration (veh/km)
Traffic Concentration (veh/km)=

flow and
design
capacit
y Flow (veh/hr)
Speed (km/hr)
Normal Conditions Zone

Traffic
flow and S Unstable Conditions
Speed of vehicles
design Zone
capacit P
y
B
Forced Conditions Zone

0
Flow of vehicle
• The designer seeks to insert geometric

Traffic
features which ensure that the curve ‘SP’
flow and
design is a flat.
capacit • ‘PBC’ flows can be very high but driving
y conditions are very unstable
• Point ‘B’- Theoretically Ultimate Capacity
• ‘OC’ speed are much lower vehicles
move under the condition of forced
driving
0.625 2.50 0.625
Width of
Single Lane
Carriageway
Two
Lane 3.75 m
0.50 2.50 1.00 2.50 0.50
7.00 m
Width of
Carriageway
I Single Lane 3.75m

II Two Lane 7.00m
III Two Lane with raised kerbs 7.50m
IV Intermediate Lane 5.50m
V Multi Lane (per lane) 3.50m
 Sight Distance-the length of

carriageway that is visible to the
Sight driver, while travelling at the design
Distance
speed
 Stopping Sight Distance
 Overtaking /Passing Sight Distance
Stopping Sight Distance

 Sufficient carriageway distance
Sight
within his/her line of vision to
Distance allow the vehicle to be stopped
before colliding with a object
appearing suddenly on the
carriageway.
 Calculation of minimum distance

required to stop the vehicle involves:
Stopping  Value of speed
Sight  Perception-reaction time
Distance  Breaking distance
 Eye height
 Object height
 Perception-reaction time
Perception time is time which elapses
between the instant the driver sees the
Stopping object on the carriageway and the instant
Sight of realization that break action is required.
As per IRC this is 2.50 sec
Distance
Perception-reaction time (m)= tv=0.278 tV
v= initial speed (m/sec), V= initial speed
(km/hr), and t=perception-reaction time (s)
 Breaking distance
The distance needed by a vehicle to stop, after
Stopping the brakes have been applied.
Friction developed
Sight between the wheel
and road surface Stopped Vehicle
Distance Initial speed
Application
of breaks
 Breaking distance
This distance calculated by:
Utilizing the principle that the change in kinetic
Stopping
energy is equal to force multiplied by distance.
Sight Thus
Distance ½ Mv2=Mgf *d therefore

d=v2/2gf = V2/254 f, where,
g=acceleration of free fall=9.81 m/s2 , v=initial speed (m/s), V=
initial speed (km/hr), d= braking distance (m), f= coefficient of
friction developed between the tyre and the surface
Calculate the safe stopping sight

distance for design speed of 50 kmph
Stopping for
Sight a)Two way traffic on two lane road
Distance b) Two way traffic on a single lane
road.
Assume coefficient of friction as 0.37
and reaction time of driver 2.5 sec
Solution:
Stopping distance=vt+v2 /2 g f
Stopping V=50 kmph, v=50/3.6=13.9 m/sec
Sight t=2.5 g=9.8 f=0.37
Distance SSD=13.9*2.5+13.92/2*9.8*0.37=61.4
a)Two way traffic on two lane road=61.4m

b)Two way traffic on a single lane
road=61.4*2=122.8m
Overtaking / Passing Sight Distance

 Mix traffic condition
Overtaking  It is necessary for fast moving vehicle to
Sight overtake or pass the slow moving vehicle
Distance
The minimum distance open to the vision of
the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake
slow vehicle ahead with safety against the
traffic of opposite direction is known as the
minimum overtaking sight distance (OSD) or
the safe passing sight distance.
Overtaking d1 –time taken or distance travelled by a

Sight vehicle while its driver decides whether or
not it is safe to pass the vehicle in front (2-
Distance
3.5 s)
d2- time taken or distance travelled by a the
overtaking vehicle in carrying out the
actual passing process.
d2- begins the instant the overtaking

driver turns the wheel and ends when
the vehicle is return to its own lane.
Overtaking d3- is the safety dimension and is the
Sight time or distance between the
Distance overtaking vehicle and the oncoming
vehicle at the instant the overtaking
vehicle has returned to its own lane
d4-the time taken or distance travelled

by the opposing vehicle at the design
speed of the road while the actual
Overtaking overtaking process is taking place.
Sight OSD=d1+d2+d3+d4
Distance
= vb t +(vb T+s) +s+ vT
= vb t +vb T +2s+ vT
OSD=0.28Vbt+o.28VbT+2s+0.28 VT
Vb = Speed of over taken vehicle, kmph
Overtaking t= reaction time of driver, 2-3.5 secs
Sight V= speed of overtaking vehicle or design speed
Distance T=√14.4s/A, s=spacing of vehicle= (0.2 Vb + 6)
2
A= acceleration , kmph/sec
The speed of overtaking and over

taken vehicle are 70 and 40 kmph,
respectively on a two way traffic
Overtaking road. If the acceleration of over
Sight taking vehicle is 0.99 m/sec2
Distance calculate the safe overtaking sight
distance. LV=6 m. reaction time of
driver=2.0 sec
V=70 kmph v=19.4 m/sec

Vb=40 kmph vb=11.1 m/sec
Overtaking A=0.99 m/sec2 t=2 sec
Sight
d1=11.1*2=22.2m
Distance
d2=vbT , s=(0.7vb+6)=13.8m T=4*s/a=7.47 sec
d2=82.91 d3=27.6 d4=144.9
ODS=22.2+82.91+27.6+144.9=277.61m
 Horizontal curve design is one of

the most important features
influencing the efficiency safety
Horizontal
of a Highway
Curvature
 Improper design will result in
lower speeds and lowering of
highway capacity
 The maximum comfortable speed

on a horizontal curve is depends
upon :
Horizontal  The radius of curve
Curvature  The superelevation of the carriageway
 Extra carriageway width (extra
widening)
 Transition curve between straights
and curves
 A circular curve joining two road

Properties tangents can be describe :
of the  Radius of curve
circular
 Degree of curvature
curve
Properties PI, PC and PT are the

point of intersection,
of the
curvature and tangency
circular
curve
T=R tan( ∆/2)

E=R[sec(∆/2)-1
Lc=2 R sin (∆/2)
= T tan (∆/4)
L=100 ∆/D
M= R[1-cos(∆/2)]
D=5729.6/R
R=50/sin(D/2)
Properties
of the
circular
curve
Hair Pin
Bend
Hair Pin ∆AOE
Curve  R R
tan  
2 T  m r tan   m
2
  m  m 2  R(2r  R )
tan 
T m R 2 2r  R
AO  
cos  sin 
  360  2(90  Total
0
 ) length
0
  180  2  
0
of Hairpin Curve
K
R S  2( K0  m)  K
0 Ko= Length of back curve
180
Hair Pin
Bend
Curvature
 Any body moving along a curved
and
path is subject to an outward
centrifugal
reactive force called the
force
centrifugal force
 On highways curve, this force
tends to cause vehicle :
 to overturn
 to slide outwards from the
centre of road curvature
Curvature
and
centrifugal
force
P=Mv2/R
P=Nµ=Mgµ
µ=v2 /gR=P/Mg
Centrifugal ratio
µ=V2/127R If the limiting value of µ is known, the minimum
curve radius can be calculated for any design
speed
Superelevation
Superelevatio
 In order to resist the

outward acting centrifugal
force, it is customary to
superelevate or slope the
carriageway cross-section of
the curved section of the
n
highway .
 For every combination of radius and

design speed , there is a particular rate
Superelevatio
of superelevation that balances the

centrifugal force
 If Superelevation is insufficient to
balance the outward force, it is
necessary for frictional force to be
developed between the tyre and the
n
road surface in order to keep the

vehicle from sliding laterally.
Superelevatio
n
V2/127R=µ+e
Superelevatio
n
I
Sight
Set back border
Distance at
horizontal
curves
 An automobile has a rigid wheel base

and only the front wheels can be
Extra
turned, the rear wheels do not follow
carriageway
width
the same path Off tracking
(extra  At speed higher than the design
widening) speed, the rear wheel may take paths
on the outside.
Extra
carriageway
width
(extra
widening)
 The path traced by the wheel of trailer

is on either side of the central path of
Extra
the towing vehicle
carriageway
width  The drivers have tendency not to
(extra follow the central path of the lane,
widening) but to use the outer side at the
beginning of a curve (especially in
large radius curve)
 While two vehicles cross or overtake

at curve there is a psychological
Extra
tendency to maintain the greater
carriageway
width
clearance between the vehicles.
(extra  Two part of widening
widening)
 Mechanical widening
 Psychological Widening
 Mechanical widening
Extra Wm=nl2/2R
carriageway
width
 Psychological Widening
(extra Wps =V/ 9.5 √R
widening)
Widening Procedure
Extra  On simple circular curve: in side of
carriageway the carriageway
width
(extra
 On transition and simple circular
widening) curve : widening may be equally
divided between the inside and
outside of the curve
 As a vehicle enters or leaves a

circular curve, the driver will, for
Transition comfort and safety, gradually turn
Curve the steering wheel from the
normal position to that of the
necessary deflection in order to
combat the developing effect of
the centrifugal force.
Transition
Curve
 The transition path (Curve) is

depends upon:
Transition
 Speed of the vehicle
Curve
 The radius of the curve
 The superelevation of the curve
 The steering action of the driver
 The purpose of transition curve:

 To enable vehicles moving at
Transition
Curve high speed to make the
change from the tangent to
curved section to tangent
section in a safe and
comfortable manner.
 The proper introduction of

transition curve will provide
Transition
the natural easy-to-follow
Curve
path for driver so that the
centrifugal force increases and
decreases gradually as the
vehicle enter and leaves
circular curve.
 This minimizes the intrusion of

vehicle onto the wrong lane ,
Transition
tends to encourage uniformity
Curve
in speed, and increase vehicle
safety at the curve
Transition
Curve
Types of Transition Curve

Transition
Curve
a. Spiral, b. Lemniscate, c. Cubic Parabola

Calculation of Length of Transition

Transition Curve
Curve i. Rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration
ii. Rate of introduction of
superelevation
iii. Empirical formula (IRC)
Rate of change of centrifugal

Transition acceleration
Curve L 
V3
s
(3.6)3 CR
80
C m / sec3[0.5  C  0.80]
(75  V )
Rate of introduction of
Transition superelevation
Curve
Ls  EN  eN (W  We )
N  150to60
Calculation of Length of Transition

Transition Curve
Curve Empirical formula (IRC)
For plain and rolling terrain
2.7V 2
Ls 
R
For mountainous terrain
V2
Ls 
R
The vertical curves may be

Vertical classified into two categories:
Curve  Summit Curve
 Valley Curve
Summit Curve
Vertical n2 n2
n1 n1
Curve
N=n1-n2 N=n1
n1
n1 n2 n2
N=n1+n2 N=n2-n1
Valley Curve
n n1
Vertical 1 n2
n2
Curve
N=-n1+n2 N=-n1
n
1 n2 n2
n1
N=-(n1+n2) N=n2-n1
Parabolic Curve
Vertical x 2
Curve y
2R
Length of Summit Curve

Summit Consideration:
Curve
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

Summit i When the length of the curve is
Curve greater than the stopping sight
distance (L>SSD)
ii When the length of the curve is
less than the stopping sight
distance (L<SSD)

Summit i (L>SSD)
NS 2
NS 2
L 
Curve ( 2 H  2h ) 2 4.4
ii (L<SSD)
( 2 H  2h ) 2 4.4
L  2S   2S 
N N
H  1 . 2 m , h  0 . 15 m

Summit i When the length of the curve is
Curve greater than the overtaking sight
distance (L>OSD)
ii When the length of the curve is
less than the overtaking sight
distance (L<OSD)

Summit i (L>OSD)
NS 2 NS 2
Curve L 
8H 9 .6
ii (L<OSD)
8H 9. 6
L  2S   2S 
N N
The length of valley curve is

Valley designed based on the two
Curve criteria:
i The allowable rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration of 0.06
m/ sec3
ii The head light sight distance
i The allowable rate of change of

Valley centrifugal acceleration of 0.06
Curve m/ sec3
3 1/ 2
 Nv 
L  2   0.38( NV )
3 1/ 2
 C 
ii The head light sight distance

Valley Two conditions:
Curve a. When the length of the curve is
greater than the stopping sight
distance (L>SSD)
b. When the length of the curve is less
than the stopping sight distance
(L<SSD)
Valley
Curve
a. L>SSD b. L<SSD
NS 2 ( 2h1  2 S tan  )
L L  2S 
( 2h1  2 S tan  ) N
NS 2 (1.50  0.035S )
L L  2S 
(1.50  0.035S ) N
h 1  0 . 75 and   1 0
THANK YOU
Prakash Upadhyaya
Senior Divisional Engineer
Department of Railways
Battisputali, Kathmandu

Geometric Design of Highways

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Geometric Design of Highways

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Road its development

and Geometric design

• End of 18 th century considerable

• The Inspector General of road in

France between 1775 and 1785.

• He enunciated the necessity of routine

•Robert • Thomos Telford was first civil engineer

method of road construction

supports the weight of the traffic; that while

the intended surface camber

• Tresaguet can be given the credit of

• John Loudon Macadam was the first

• Asphalt, which was first utilized as a

more people more comfortably and

ug{sf] vflt/ lj=;=!(*! Dff

e};] !!# ls=dL nfdf] ;8sn] k|

oftfoftsf ;fwfgx? rNg yfn] .

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cfjZostf dxz'; u/L tTsfndf ;

dxTjk"0f{ dflgPsf s]Gb|

o;/L clVtof/ ul/Psf] /

0fgLlt cg'?k ;8s

hftGqsf] :yfkgf ePsf]

• Geometric design is concern with

• Features which have to be considered

• Design of these features is

• Proper geometric design :

Average Speed (km/hr)

0 100 200 300 400 500

0 100 200 300 400 500

Traffic Concentration (veh/km)=

Normal Conditions Zone

Forced Conditions Zone

• The designer seeks to insert geometric

0.50 2.50 1.00 2.50 0.50

I Single Lane 3.75m

 Sight Distance-the length of

Stopping Sight Distance

 Calculation of minimum distance

Distance ½ Mv2=Mgf *d therefore

Calculate the safe stopping sight

a)Two way traffic on two lane road=61.4m

Overtaking / Passing Sight Distance

Overtaking d1 –time taken or distance travelled by a

d2- begins the instant the overtaking

d4-the time taken or distance travelled

The speed of overtaking and over

V=70 kmph v=19.4 m/sec

 Horizontal curve design is one of

 The maximum comfortable speed

 A circular curve joining two road

Properties PI, PC and PT are the

T=R tan( ∆/2)

Hair Pin ∆AOE

 In order to resist the

 For every combination of radius and

of superelevation that balances the

road surface in order to keep the

 An automobile has a rigid wheel base

 The path traced by the wheel of trailer

 While two vehicles cross or overtake

 As a vehicle enters or leaves a

 The transition path (Curve) is