ORDINARY CAPACITANCE

• Capacitance arises whenever there are two

conducting bodies charged to different electric
potentials.
• Two different bodies at different electric potentials
always have an electric field between them.
• The energy stored in their electric field is supplied by
the driving circuit .
• The reluctance of voltage to build up quickly in
response to injected power or to decay quickly is
called capacitance.
 ORDINARY INDUCTANCE
• Inductance arises whenever there is electric current.

• Electric current creates a magnetic field with the energy stored in the
magnetic field supplied by some driving circuit.

• The reluctance of current to build up quickly or to decay quickly is

called inductance.

• When a voltage step is first applied almost no current flows

making the ratio Y(t)/I(t) very high.

• At short time scales ,the inductor looks like an open circuit.

• Over time the ratio Y(t)/I(t) decays. Eventually the voltage drops to
near zero and the inductor starts to look like a short circuit.
• After the magnetic field surrounding the inductor is fully formed
,the current is limited only by the DC resistance of the inductor. The
ratio Y(t)/I(t) is extremely low.

• The relation ship between rise time and frequency to derive a rough
idea of the reactance presented by an inductor to the leading edge of
a digital waveform .

• This approach is very useful when considering the ground bounce

introduced in a poor ground connection by a parasitic series
inductance.
• XL=𝞹L/Tr ………………..1
• The voltage across an inductor at any point in time is always related
to the rise time of the current through it according to the general
formulae : VInductor= L d/dt(IInductor)………2

• Eqn 2 is used when calculating cross talk due to inductance between

circuits.
 MUTUAL CAPACITANCE
• Whenever there are two circuits ,there is mutual capacitance.

• Voltage in one circuit create electric fields and these electric fields
affect the second circuit.

• Every two circuits interact electrically with the coefficient of

interaction decaying rapidly with increasing distance.

• The coefficient of electrical interaction between two circuits is

called their mutual capacitance.

• Units are farads or amps-seconds/volt.

• A mutual capacitive coupling between two circuits is simply a

parasitic capacitor connected from Circuit A and Circuit B.
• A mutual capacitance CM injects a current IM into circuit B
proportional to the rate of change of voltage in circuit A
according to this rule.
𝑑
• IM= CM (𝑉𝐴) ……………………..1
𝑑𝑡
• Eqn 1 is a simple approximation to the actual coupled noise
current.
• The simple approximation of eqn 1 works under three
assumptions:
(1) The coupled current flowing in CM is much smaller than the
primary signal current in circuit A. Capacitance , CM,
therefore does not load circuit A.
(2) The coupled signal voltage in circuit B is smaller than the
signal on A.
We can ignore the small coupled voltage on B when
calculating the noise current and assume the voltage
difference between circuits A and B simply equals 𝑉𝐴.
3.Assume the capacitor is a large impedance compared to the
impedance to ground of circuit B.
• We will calculate the coupled noise voltages as IM times the
impedance of circuit B to ground.
• This procedure ignores the interactions between the mutual
capacitance and the secondary circuit.

• When the coupled noise voltage is less than 10% of the

signal step size ,these approximations are accurate to about
one decimal place.

• When the coupled noise voltage is greater than 10% of the

signal step size ,these approximations is worse , but then with
10% crosstalk a digital circuit probably won’t work.
 RELATION OF MUTUAL CAPACITANCE TO CROSSTALK
• Given a known amount of mutual capacitance CM fixed circuit
rise time Tr and a known impedance in the receiving circuit
equals to Rb we may estimate crosstalk as a fraction of the
driving waveform VA .
• First derive the maximum change in voltage per unit time of
waveform VA ,where ΔV is the driving waveform step height
and Tr is the driving waveform rise time.
𝑑 ∆𝑉
• (𝑉𝐴)= …………………………1
𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝑟
• Next compute the mutual capacitive current which flows from
circuit A to circuit B using equation

∆𝑽
• 𝐼𝑀 = CM ……………………………………..2
𝑻𝒓
• Multiply the interfering current 𝐼𝑀 by RB to find the interfering
voltage and divide by 𝑉 to express this result as a fractional
∆
interference level :
RB 𝐼𝑀 RBCM
• Cross talk = = ………………….. 3
𝑇𝑟
𝑉
∆

• In situations involving multiple interfering sources (eg:- EMI

filter layouts involving many parts crammed together inside a
connector shell), estimate the mutual capacitances between
each pair of elements separately & then sum the fractional
crosstalk from each source to each receiving circuits.
• An interference level as low as 2%, summed over five nearby
sources, gives 500 mV of interference in a TTL system.
• That’s more than typical TTL noise margins & represents a
serious problem.
 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
• Wherever there are two loops of current, there is mutual inductance.

• The current in one loop creates a magnetic field, and magnetic field affect the second loop.

• Every two loop interact, with the coefficient of interaction decaying rapidly with the
increasing distance .

• The coefficient of interaction b/w each other is called mutual inductance, units of which are
henries, or volt-seconds/amp.

• A mutual inductive coupling b/w two circuits act the same as a tiny transformer connected
b/w circuit A & circuit B as shown in fig below.

• Anywhere we see two nearby loops of current, two current interact like the primary &
secondary of a transformer, & we get mutual inductance.
• A mutual inductance LM injects a noise voltage Y into circuit B
proportional to the rate of change of current in circuit A according to
this rule:
𝑑𝐼
Y=LM 𝐴 ………………………………………….. 1
𝑑𝑡
• Quick changes in current in loop A induce large voltages in loop B
,hence the importance of mutual inductive coupling to high speed
design.

• Equation 1 is a simple approximation to the actual coupled noise

voltage.

• A Complete formula would use the difference in currents between

primary and secondary and the loading effect of the primary and
secondary windings of the two circuits.
The assumptions following equation 1 are as follows:-

1. The induced voltage across Lm is much smaller than the primary signal voltage.
Attaching Lm therefore does not load circuit A.

• Noise voltages coupled by mutual inductance in digital products are always

smaller than the source signal.

2. The coupled signal current in circuit B is smaller than the current in A.

 We can ignore the small coupled current in B and assume the difference b/w primary
& secondary currents in the coupling transformer just equals IA .

3. Assume the secondary impedance is small compared to the impedance to ground of

circuit B.

 Just add the coupled noise voltage otherwise present in circuit B. This procedure
ignores interactions b/w the mutual inductance and the secondary circuit.
 In the digital circuit mutual inductance, like mutual capacitance, usually
induces unwanted crosstalk b/w circuit.
Figure illustrates the exact process by which mutual inductive coupling
operates:-

1. Any current in loop A produces a pattern of magnetic field energy .

• At strong currents, more magnetic energy is stored per unit volume

in the space surrounding loop A.

2. Over the area subtended by loop B , we can compute the total strength
of the magnetic field from A.

• The total magnetic field strength over the area of loop B, called the
magnetic flux in B is a function of the distance between the loops A
and B , their physical proportions and their relative orientations and is
directly proportional to the current in A.

• More current in A produces more flux in loop B.

 3.Changes in the loop current of A produce corresponding
proportional changes in the magnetic flux passing through loop
A.

4. Faraday’s law tells us that the voltage in loop B is

proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux passing
through loop B.

• Linking together ideas from 1 to 4 we see that the voltage

induced in loop B is proportional to the rate of change of
current in loop A.

• The constant of proportionality is known as mutual inductance

between circuits A and B.
RELATION OF MUTUAL INDUCTANCE TO CROSSTALK
HIGH SPEED PROPERTIES OF LOGIC GATES
• Power ,speed and packaging are paramount
considerations in the design of any digital machine.
• Every designer wants power low, speed high and
packaging cheap.
• Unfortunately ,no logic family satisfies users on all
fonts .
• We are forced to choose from a variety of logic
families ,each tailored in some way to a particular
application.
• HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF A VERY OLD
DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY