Facilitating Learning - Module 3

Module 3
Review of Theories
Related to the Learners’
Development
Psychosexual
Stages of
Development
Sigmund Freud
“The mind is like
an iceberg, it
floats with one
– seventh of its
bulk above
water.”
Sigmund Freud
3 Components of
Personality
1. Id
pleasure – centered
it operates on the
pleasure principle which is
the idea that every
wishful impulses should
be satisfied immediately
1. Id
demands immediate
satisfaction
consists of all the inherited
components of
personality present at
birth (including Eros and
Thanatos)
1. Id
engages in primary process
thinking which is
- primitive
- illogical
- irrational
- fantasy oriented
2. Ego
reality – centered
mediate between the
unrealistic id and the
external real world
2. Ego
concerned with devising a
realistic strategy to obtain
pleasure
the decision making
component of personality
2. Ego
engages in secondary
process thinking which is
- rational
- realistic
- oriented towards
problem solving
3. Superego
ideal or conscience
develops around the
age of 3 – 5 years old
control the id’s
impulses
3. Superego
incorporates the values
and morals of society
which are learned
from one’s parents and
others
3. Superego
persuading the ego to
turn to moralistic
goals rather than
simply realistic one
Psychosexual
Stages of
Development
Oral Stage
0 to 1 year
libido is centered in a
baby’s mouth
sucking, biting,
breastfeeding
Oral Stage
Freud said oral
stimulation could lead to
an oral fixation in later
life.
Anal Stage
1 – 3 years
the libido becomes
focused on the anus and
the child derives great
pleasure from defecating
Anal Stage
adults impose
restrictions on when
and where the child
can defecate
Anal Stage
Phallic Stage
3 to 5 or 6 years
sensitivity becomes
concentrated in the
genitals
masturbation becomes a
new source of pleasure
Phallic Stage
the child becomes aware
of anatomical sex
differences
- Oedipus complex
- Electra complex
Phallic Stage
Oedipus complex
derives from the Greek
myth where Oedipus, a
young man, kills his
father and marries his
mother
Phallic Stage
Oedipus complex
the boy develops sexual
desires for his mother
during the phallic stage
what the boy loves most
is his penis
Phallic Stage
Oedipus complex
Phallic Stage
Oedipus complex
resolved through the
process of identification
(internally adopting the
values, attitudes, and
behaviors of another
person)
Phallic Stage
Electra complex
the girl desires the
father, but realizes
that she does not have
a penis
Phallic Stage
Electra complex
Phallic Stage
Electra complex
resolves by repressing her
desire / feelings for her
father and identifies with
the mother to take on
the female gender role
Latency Stage
5 or 6 years to puberty
no further psychosexual
development takes
place during this stage
Latency Stage
most sexual impulses are
repressed and sexual
energy can be sublimated
towards school work,
hobbies, and friendships
Genital Stage
puberty to adult
time of adolescent
for sexual
experimentation
Genital Stage
the successful
resolution is settling
down in one to one
relationship with
another person
Psychosocial
Stages of
Development
Erik Erikson
“Healthy
children will
not fear life if
their elders
have integrity
enough not to
fear death.”
Erik Erikson
Trust vs. Mistrust
infancy (0 to 1 1/2 )
infants must learn that
adults can be trusted
Trust vs. Mistrust
Maladaptation
Parents who are overly
protective of the child, will lead
that child into the maladaptive
tendency which Erikson calls
sensory maladjustment (overly
trusting)
Trust vs. Mistrust
Malignancy
The child whose balance is
tipped way over on the mistrust
side, he / she will develop the
malignant tendency of
withdrawal (depression,
paranoia, and possibly psychosis)
Trust vs. Mistrust
Virtue
Hope (basic feeling
that everything will be
okay)
Stage 1
Infancy
Maladaptation
Sensory Malignancy
maladjustment Withdrawal
Psychosocial Crisis
Trust vs. Mistrust
Virtue
Hope
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Early Childhood
(1 ½ to 3 years )
toddlers begin to explore
their world; begin to
show clear preferences
for certain elements of
the environment
Maladaptation
Without shame and doubt, the
child will develop impulsiveness, a
sort of shameless willfulness that
leads the child to jump into things
without proper consideration of
his/her abilities
Malignancy
Too much shame and doubt,
leads to compulsiveness (The
compulsive person feels as if their
entire being rides on everything
they do.)
Virtue
Will Power (confidence
in self to decide on
things)
Stage 2
Early Childhood
Maladaptation Malignancy
Impulsiveness Compulsiveness
Psychosocial Crisis
Autonomy vs.
Shame and Doubt
Virtue
Will Power
Initiative vs. Guilt
Play Age (3 or 4 to 5 or 6
years)
Children are capable of
initiating activities and
asserting control over their
world through social
interactions and play
Maladaptation
Too much initiative and too
little guilt means a maladptive
tendency Erikson calls ruthlessness.
(To be ruthless is to be heartless)
Malignancy
Harder on the person is the
malignancy of too much guilt,
which Erikson calls inhibition.
(The inhibited person are so
afraid to start and take a lead
on a project.)
Virtue
Purpose (ability to
define personal direction
and aims goals)
Stage 3
Play Age
Ruthlessness Inhibition
Psychosocial Crisis
Initiative vs.
Guilt
Virtue
Purpose
Industry vs. Inferiority
School Age (6 to 12 years)
Children begin to
compare themselves with
their peers to see how
they measure up
Maladaptation
Too much industry leads to the
maladaptive tendency called
narrow virtuosity. (We see this in
children who aren’t allowed to “be
children”)
Malignancy
Too much inferiority will lead
to inertia. (This includes all of us
who suffer from the “inferiority
complexes.)
Virtue
Competency (ability to
apply method and
process in pursuit of
ideas or objectives)
Stage 4
School Age
Maladaptation
Narrow Malignancy
Virtuosity Inertia
Psychosocial Crisis
Industry vs.
Inferiority
Virtue
Competency
Ego Identity vs. Role Confusion
Adolescence (puberty to
18 or 20 years)
Adolescent's main task is
developing a sense of self
“Who am I?”
“What do I want to do with
my life?”
Maladaptation
Too much “ego identity”,
where a person is so involved in a
particular role in a particular
society or subculture that there is
no room left for tolerance...Erikson
calls this fanaticism.
Malignancy
The lack of identity is perhaps
more difficult still, and Erikson
refers to the malignant tendency
here as repudiation.
(To repudiate is to reject.)
Virtue
Fidelity (The ability to
live by societies standards
despite their imperfections
and incompleteness and
inconsistencies.)
Stage 5
Adolescence
Fanaticism Repudiation
Psychosocial Crisis
Ego Identity vs.
Role Confusion
Virtue
Fidelity
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Young Adulthood (18 to
30 years)
Young adults are ready
to share their life with
others
Maladaptation
Erikson calls the maladaptive
form promiscuity, referring
particularly to the tendency to
become intimate too freely, too
easily
Malignancy
The malignancy Erikson calls
exclusion, which refers to the
tendency to isolate oneself from
love, friendship, and community,
and to develop a certain
hatefulness in compensation for
one’s loneliness.
Virtue
Love (Love means being
able to put aside differences
and antagonisms through
“mutuality of devotion.”)
Stage 6
Young
Adulthood
Promiscuity Exclusion
Psychosocial Crisis
Intimacy vs.
Isolation
Virtue
Love
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Middle Adulthood (30 to
60 years)
Middle-aged adults begin
contributing to the next
generation and engage in
meaningful and productive
work
Maladaptation
Overextension (Some
people try to be so generative
that they no longer allow time
for themselves, for rest and
relaxation)
Malignancy
Too little generativity and
too much stagnation would
lead to rejectivity.
Virtue
Care (If a person will be
successful at this stage, he / she
will have a capacity for caring
that will serve him / her through
the rest of his / her life.)
Stage 7
Middle
Adulthood
Overextension Rejectivity
Psychosocial Crisis
Generativity vs.
Stagnation
Virtue
Care
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Late Adulthood or Maturity

(60 years and up)
People in late adulthood
reflect on their lives and feel
either a sense of satisfaction
or a sense of failure
Maladaptation
The maladaptive tendency is
called presumption. The person in
old age believes that he alone is
right.
Malignancy
The malignant tendency is
called disdain. The person
becomes very negative and
appears to hate life.
Virtue
Wisdom – Someone who
approaches death without fear
has the strength Erikson calls
wisdom.
Stage 8
Late Adulthood
Presumption Disdain
Psychosocial Crisis
Ego Integrity vs.
Despair
Virtue
Wisdom
Cognitive
Stages of
Development
Jean Piaget
“The principle goal of
education in the schools
should be creating men
and women who are
capable of doing new
things, not simply
repeating what other
generations have
done.”
Jean Piaget
Basic Cognitive Concepts
Schema
Assimilation
Accommodation
Equilibration
Schema
building blocks of
knowledge
cognitive structures by
which individuals
intellectually adapt to and
organize their environment
Schema
Schema
Assimilation
the process of fitting a
new experience into
an existing or
previously created
cognitive structure or
schema
Assimilation
Accommodation
the process of
creating a new
schema
Accommodation
Equilibration
achieving proper
balance between
assimilation and
accommodation
Piaget’s Stages
of Cognitive
Development
Sensory – motor Stage
birth to 2 years
focuses on the prominence
of the senses and muscle
movement through which
the infant comes to learn
about himself and the
world
the main achievement

during this stage is
object permanence
Object Permanence
- the ability of the child
to know that an
object still exists even
when out of sight
Pre – operational Stage
2 to 7 years
the child can now make
mental representations
and is able to pretend
the child is now ever

closer to the use of
symbols
Symbolic Function
- the ability to represent
objects and events
Egocentrism
- the tendency of the child
to only see his point of
view and to assume that
everyone also has his
same point of view
Centration
- the tendency of the
child to only focus on
one aspect of a thing
or event and exclude
other aspects
Reversibility
- children during this
stage still has the
inability to reverse
their thinking
Animism
- the tendency of
children to attribute
human like traits or
characteristics to
inanimate objects
Transductive Reasoning
- pre – operational
child’s type of
reasoning that is
neither inductive nor
deductive
Concrete – Operational Stage
8 to 11 years
characterized by the
ability of the child to
think logically but only in
terms of concrete objects
Decentering
- the ability of the
child to perceive the
different features of
objects and situations
Reversibility
- the child can now
follow that certain
operations can be done
in reverse
Conservation
- the ability to know
that certain properties
of objects do not
change even if there is
a change in appearance
Seriation
- the ability to order or
arrange things in a
series based on one
dimension such as
weight, volume or size
Formal Operational Stage
12 years and over

people can now
solve abstract
problems and
can hypothesize
Hypothetical Reasoning
- the ability to come up with
different hypothesis about a
problem and to gather and
weigh data in order to
make a final decision or
judgment
Analogical Reasoning
- the ability to perceive the
relationship in one instance
and then use that relationship
to narrow down possible
answers in another similar
situation or problem
Deductive Reasoning
- the ability to think
logically by applying a
general rule to a
particular instance or
situation
Stages of Moral
Development
Lawrence Kohlberg
“Right action tends to
be defined in terms of
general individual
rights and standards
that have been
critically examined and
agreed upon by the
whole society.”
Lawrence Kohlberg
Activity
Activity
In Europe, a woman was
near death from a special
kind of cancer. There was one
drug that the doctors thought
might save her. It was a form
of radium that a chemist in
the same town had recently
Activity
discovered. The drug was
expensive to make, but the
chemist was charging ten
times what the drug cost him
to make. He paid $400 for
the radium and charged
$4000 for a small dose of the
Activity
drug. The sick woman’s
husband, Heinz, went to
everyone he knew to barrow
the money and tried every
legal means, but he could only
get together about $2000,
which is half of what it cost.
Activity
He told the chemist that his
wife was dying, and asked
him to sell it cheaper or let
him pay later. But the chemist
said, “No, I discovered the
drug and I’m going to make
money from it.” So, having
Activity
tried every legal means, Heinz
gets desperate and considers
breaking into the man’s store
to steal the drug for his wife.
Preconventional Level
Moral reasoning is based
on the consequence / result of
the act, not on the whether
the act itself is good or bad.
Stage 1 – Punishment / Obedience
One is motivated by fear of
punishment. He will act in order
to avoid punishment.
Stage 1 – Punishment / Obedience
“No, I wouldn’t steal the drug,
because I would be punished. The
law says stealing is wrong, so it is
wrong.”
Stage 2– Mutual Benefit
One is motivated to act by
the benefit that one may
obtain later.
Stage 2– Mutual Benefit
“No, I wouldn’t steal the
drug, because while I want to
save my wife, being punished
would be worse than losing her.
I could just get married again.”
Conventional Level
on the conventions or “norms”
of society. These may include
approval of others, law and
order.
Conventional Level
Stage 3– Social Approval
One is motivated by what
others expect in behavior –
good boy, good girl. The person
acts because he / she values
how he / she will appear to
others.
Conventional Level
Stage 3– Social Approval
“No, I wouldn’t steal the
drug, because people would see
me as a selfish thief who breaks
rules just for my own benefit.”
Conventional Level
Stage 4– Law and Order
One is motivated to act in
order to uphold law and order.
The person will follow the law
because it is the law.
Conventional Level
Stage 4– Law and Order
“No, I wouldn’t steal the drug,
because there is a greater good to be
maintained – rules exist in order to
protect all members of society. If I were
to act on my own selfish behalf and
steal, it would set a dangerous
precedent with terrible long term
ramifications.”
Post – conventional Level
on enduring or consistent
principles. It is not just
recognizing the law, but the
principles behind the law.
Stage 5– Social Contract
Laws that are wrong can be
changed. One will act based on
social justice and the common
good.
Stage 5– Social Contract
“No, I wouldn’t steal the drug, though it
would pain me miserably. I believe the rights of
my wife to the drug are valid, but they must be
balanced against the rights of the chemist. Her
rights to life are greater. I believe the chemist is
acting immorally, and that he should be
implored to sell it cheaper, but I would stop
short of stealing and breaking laws that all of
us have decided to accept as good members of
society.”
Stage 6– Universal Principles
Having a set of standards
that drives one to possess moral
responsibility to make societal
changes regardless of
consequences to oneself.
Stage 6– Universal Principles
“I would steal the drug, administer it
to my wife, and then turn myself into the
police. I would then demand that I be
punished to the full extent of the law.
While stealing is reprehensible, my ethical
principles value life above property, and
therefore, to be true to myself and to life
itself, I must break the lesser law in order
to follow the greater good.”
Kohlberg and Moral Education
Kohlberg and his colleagues

came up with the “just
community schools”
approach towards
promoting moral
development.
The fundamental goal of

“just community schools” is
to enhance students’ moral
development by offering
them the chance to
participate in a democratic
community.
It is important to note
that, a “just community
school” simply leaves
students to their own
devices.
A primary advantage to
the just community
approach is its
effectiveness in affecting
students actions, not just
their reasoning.
Social –
Cultural Theory
Lev Vygotsky
“The teacher must
orient his work
not on yesterday’s
development in
the child but on
tomorrow’s.”
Lev Vygotsky
2 Central Factors in
Cognitive Development
1. Social Interaction
2. Language
Social Interaction
Effective learning
happens through
participation in social
activities
Social Interaction
Parents, teachers, and
other adults in the
learner’s environment
all contribute to the
process.
Language
Learners can use
language to know
and understand the
world and solve
problems.
Language
Helps the learner
regulate and reflect
on his own thinking.
When a child attempts to
perform a skill alone, s/he may
not be immediately proficient at
it. So, alone s/he may perform at
a certain level of competency.
We refer to this as the zone of
actual development.
The difference between
what the child can accomplish
alone and what she can
accomplish with the guidance of
another is what Vygotsky
referred to as zone of
proximal development
Scaffolding is the
systematic manner of
providing assistance to the
learner that helps the
learner to effectively
acquire a skill.
Scaffolding
The Zone of Proximal Development
POTENTIAL LEVEL (Level that the learner achieves with
the assistance of the teacher or a more knowledgeable other)
L
ACTUAL LEVEL
E
(Level that the learner A
achieves when alone.) R
N
I
N
INSTRUCTION with
G
scaffolding
Zone of Proximal
Development
Classroom Application
“reciprocal teaching” –
teachers and students
collaborate in learning and
practicing four key skills
(summarizing, questioning,
clarifying, and predicting)
and the teacher’s role in the
process is reduced over time
Classroom Application
collaborative learning –
suggesting that group
members should have
different levels of ability so
more advanced peers can
help less advanced members
operate within their ZPD
Bio – Ecological
Theory
Urie Bronfenbrenner
“We as a nation
need to be
reeducated about
the necessary and
sufficient conditions
for making human
beings human...”
Urie Bronfenbrenner
Bio – Ecological Theory
to explain how the inherent
qualities of a child and the
characteristics of the external
environment which the child
finds himself in interact to
influence how the child will
grow and develop
Microsystem
the smallest and most
immediate environment in
which the child lives
comprises the daily home,
school or day care, peer
group or community
environment of the child
Mesosystem
encompasses the
interaction of the
different microsystems
which the developing
child finds himself in
Exosystem
pertains to the linkages
that may exist between
two or more settings,
one of which may not
contain the developing
child but affects him
indirectly
Macrosystem
composed of the child’s
cultural patterns and
values, specifically the
child’s dominant beliefs
and ideas, as well as
political and economic
systems
Chronosystem
adds the useful dimension
of time, which
demonstrates the
influence of both change
and constancy in the
child’s environment
Chronosystem
Changes Over Time
Macrosystem
Social & Cultural Values
Exosystem
Indirect Environment
Mesosystem
Connections
Microsystem
Immediate Environment
CHILD

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Module 3

Late Adulthood or Maturity

the main achievement

the child is now ever

12 years and over

Kohlberg and his colleagues

The fundamental goal of

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