MINERALS

 Solid constituents of all rocks (Igneous, Sedimentary,

Metamorphic) and occur as crystals.
 Defined as natural inorganic substance having a
particular chemical composition and regular atomic
structure to crystalline form is related.
 Minerals occur as “crystals”.
 Thousand of minerals in earth have been identified,
but only 10 minerals make up most of volume of
earth’s crust.
 ELEMENTARY
KNOWLEDGE ON
SYMMETRY ELEMENTS
OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
SYSTEMS

Crystallography
 The experimental science of the arrangement of
atoms in solids. It comes from the Greek word
“CRYSTALLON” that means cold drop or frozen drop,
and “GRAPHO” that means write.

Unit Cell
 Smallest complete unit of pattern in the atomic
structure of a crystal.
 By repeating the pattern of unit cell over and over in
all direction, the entire crystal lattice can be
constructed.
 CRYSTALS

Crystals
 any solid material in which the component
atoms are arranged in a definite pattern and
whose surface regularity reflects in its internal
symmetry.
 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
AXES

 The identification of specific symmetry

operations enables one to orientate a crystal
according to an imaginary set of reference lines
known as crystallographic axes.
 These are distinct and different from the
classic Cartesian axes, x, y, z, used in other
common day usage, such as plotting graphs.
The end of each axes are designated as + or -.
 The angles between the positive ends of the
axes are designated as alpha , beta and gamma
symbols.
 With the exception of the hexagonal system,
the axes are designated as a, b, and c.
 The point of intersection of the three axes is
called AXIAL CROSS.
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
AXES
 SYMMETRY

Space of Group of a Crystal

 describes the symmetry of that crystal, and such it
describes an important aspect of that crystal’s
internal structure.
TWO TYPES OF SYMMETRIES:
 Translational symmetry – macroscopically
not visible because the translation lengths are in
order.
 Point Symmetry – macroscopically visible
symmetry operations. There are 32
crystallographic point group.
POINT SYMMETRY OPERATIONS:
 Center of Symmetry – Reflection in one point
or inversion.
 Mirror symmetry – Reflection in a plane.
 Rotational Symmetry – Rotation about an
imaginary axis.
 Roto-inversion – Rotation and after it inversion.

POINT SYMMETRY
OPERATION
 FORMS OF CRYSTAL

 In the Cubic System many crystals are

bounded by faces which are all similar; such a
shape is a form.
 In the orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic
systems, where the axes are all unequal, faces
are name as follows:
Pyramid
 -A face which would cut all three axes.
Prisms
 -Faces which cut two lateral axes and are
parallel to the vertical axis and make groups of
four, symmetrically placed about the axes.
Pinacoid
 -A face which cuts any one axis and is parallel
to the other two.
Dome
 -Cuts one lateral and the vertical axis, and is
parallel to the other lateral axis.
 CRYSTAL CLASSES

 With all these point symmetries, combinations can

be made. And this results in a total of 32 unique
possibilities which are grouped into 6 crystal
system.

 CUBIC OR ISOMETRIC SYSTEM

 MONOCLINIC SYSTEM
 TRICLINIC SYSTEM
 ORTHORHOMBHIC SYSTEM
 TETRAGONAL SYSTEM
 HEXAGONAL SYSTEM
 CUBIC OR ISOMETRIC
SYSTEM
 The three crystallographic axes are all equal in
length and intersect at right angles to each other.
 There are 15 isometric forms , but the most
common are: Cube , Octahedron , Dodecahedron,
Tetrahexahedron, Trapezohedron, Trapezohedron,
Trisoctahedron, Hexoctahedron.
MONOCLINIC SYSTEM

 Three unequal axes , two are inclined with

oblique angles, the third is perpendicular.
 The unique symmetry operation in a monoclinic
system is 2/m-a two-fold axis of rotation with a
mirror plane.
 It has two forms : Pinacoids and prisms.
 Common monoclinic rock forming minerals:
clinopyroxene , mica, orthoclase and titanite.
 TRICLINIC SYSTEM

 Three unequal axes with oblique angles.

 The b axis should be longer than the a axis.
 The unique symmetry operation in a triclinic
system is a 1-fold axis of roto-inversion (
equivalent to a center of symmetry or
inversion).
 All forms are pinacoid, therefore must consist
of 2 identical and parallel faces.
 Common triclinic rock-forming minerals:
microcline, some plagioclases and wollastonite.
 ORTHORHOMBHIC
SYSTEM
 Three mutually perpendicular axes of different
lengths.
 Length of the b axis is taken as unity and ratios
are calculated thereafter.
 Perpendicular to each of the axes b is a mirror
plane.
 There are 3 types of form in the class:
pinacoids, prisms, and dipyramids.
TETRAGONAL SYSTEM

 Three mutually perpendicular axes, two are

equal, the third (vertical) is shorter.
 The 2 horizontal axis in a tetragonal mineral
are oriented in the plane of the horizontal.
Therefore, If a=b, c must be in the vertical.
 There is no rule as to whether c is greater or
less than a.
 There are 5 mirror planes.
 General class: Ditetragonal-dipyramidal class.
 4 types of form: basal pinacoids, tetragonal
prisms, tetragonal dipyramids and
ditetragonal prisms.
 Common tetragonal rock forming minerals:
zircon, ritle and anatase and apophyllite.
TETRAGONAL SYSTEM
HEXAGONAL SYSTEM

 Three equal horizontal axes (a1 , a2 , a3) and a 4th

perpendicular vertical axis of different length.
 The three horizontal axis of a hexagonal mineral
are oriented in the plane of the horizontal, with
c in the vertical.
 There vertical axis is the 6-fold rotational
operation, while there are further 6-fold axis of
rotation in the horizontal plane
 7 mirror planes.
 General Class: dihexagonal-dipyramidal class.
 5 types of form : pinacoids, hexagonal prisms,
hexagonal dipyramids , dihexagonal prisms, and
dihexagonal dipyramids.
 Common hexagonal minerals: beryl and apatite.
HEXAGONAL SYSTEM
IMPORTANCE OF
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

 SOCIETY:
 scientists are able to study the chemical
bonds which draw one atom to another.
 could study biological materials, such as
proteins or DNA, by making crystals out of
them.
 development of all new materials.
 Virtually everything we know about rocks,
geological formations and the history of the
Earth is based on crystallography.
 Drug design is strongly reliant on the use of
crystallography.
 IN CIVIL INGINEERING:
 The field of crystallography provides the
foundation of the structure–properties
relationship. It bridges the fundamental
understanding of materials with their
applications.
 THE STUDY OF THE
FOLLOWING ROCK
FORMING MINERALS

 QUARTZ FAMILY
 FELDSPAR FAMILY
 AUGITE
 HORNBLENDE
 introduction of
rock forming
minerals
 Rocks are composed of minerals. A mineral is a
naturally occurring substance which is usually
solid, crystalline, stable at room temperature and
inorganic.

 There are almost 5000 known mineral species, yet

the vast majority of rocks are formed from
combinations of a few common minerals, referred
to as “rock-forming minerals”. The rock-forming
minerals are: feldspars, quartz, amphiboles, micas,
olivine, garnet, calcite, pyroxenes.

 Minerals occurring within a rock in small

quantities are referred to as “accessory minerals”.
Although accessory minerals are present in only
small amounts, they may provide valuable insight
into the geological history of a rock, and are often
used to ascertain the age of a rock. Common
accessory minerals are: zircon, monazite, apatite,
titanite, tourmaline, pyrite and other opaques.

 introduction of
rock forming
minerals
 The abundance and diversity of minerals depend
on the abundance in the Earth’s crust of the
elements of which they are composed. Eight
elements make up 98% of the Earth’s crust:
oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, magnesium,
calcium, sodium and potassium. The composition
of minerals formed by igneous processes is
directly controlled by the chemistry of the parent
body. For example, a magma rich in iron and
magnesium will form minerals such as olivine and
pyroxene (as found in basalt). Magma richer in
silicon will form more silica-rich minerals such as
feldspar and quartz (as found in granite). It is
unlikely that a mineral will be found in a rock
with dissimilar bulk chemistry unlike its own;
thus it is unlikely that andalusite (Al2SiO5) would
be found in an aluminium-poor rock such as a
quartzite.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF MINERALS
 Some minerals are easily identifiable; others can only be
recognized only by the use of a petrographic microscope
or by complex analytical techniques. The following
criteria are used to differentiate minerals in hand
sample. Most minerals cannot be identified from one
particular property, and so it is advisable to use several
of the diagnostic criteria outlined below. A hand lens will
assist you greatly.

COLOUR
 Colour is one of the most obvious characteristic
of a mineral, but generally not the most useful
diagnostic feature. Depending on impurities,
individual mineral types may come in a vast variety
of colours. For example, ruby and sapphire are
differently coloured types of the mineral corundum
(Al2O3). The red colour of ruby is due to the
presence of the element chromium. Sapphires may
come is a vast variety of colours; blue is the most
familiar colour, but yellow, orange, green, pink,
orange and brown varieties are also known. Garnets
may also come in a large range of colours,
depending on their composition. They can be found
with virtually any colour, although blue garnets are
exceptionally rare. It is therefore advisable not to
rely on colour alone to identify a mineral.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF MINERALS

CRYSTAL HABIT
 Crystal habit refers to the characteristic shape of a
mineral unit (either an individual crystal or an
aggregate of crystals). Crystals with well-developed
faces are referred to as “euhedral”; for example
garnet crystals are often euhedral. Minerals may
also occur as aggregates of crystals; for example,
asbestos is usually found as an aggregate of very
fine fibres. The following list gives examples of
different crystal habits and examples of common
minerals that may exhibit each habit.

 Acicular – needle-like, e.g. natrolite, rutile

 Bladed – blade-like, slender and flattened, e.g.
kyanite
 Botryoidal – grape-like masses, e.g. hematite,
malachite
 Columnar – long, slender prisms, e.g. calcite,
gypsum
 Cubic – cube-shaped, e.g. pyrite, galena, halite
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF MINERALS

 Dendritic – tree-like, branching in multiple

directions, e.g. pyrolusite, native copper, native
silver
 Fibrous – very slender prisms, e.g. asbestos,
tremolite
 Foliated or lamellar – layered structure, parts
easily into very thin sheets, e.g. muscovite, biotite
 Granular – aggregates of crystals, e.g. bornite,
scheelite
 Hexagonal – six-sided, e.g. quartz, hanksite
 Massive – no distinct shape, e.g. turquoise, realgar
 Octahedral– eight-sided, e.g. diamond, magnetite
 Platy – flat, tablet shape, e.g. wulfenite
 Prismatic – elongate, prism like, e.g. tourmaline,
beryl
 Radial or stellate – radiating outwards from a
central point, star-like, e.g. wavellite, pyrophyllite

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF MINERALS
HARDNESS
 Hardness is a measure of how resistant a mineral
is to scratching. This physical property is
controlled by the chemical composition and
structure of the mineral. Hardness is commonly
measured on the Mohs scale. This is defined by
ten minerals, where each mineral can scratch
those with a lower scale number. Diamond
(hardness 10) can scratch everything below it on
the Mohs scale, but cannot itself be scratched,
whereas quartz (hardness 5) can scratch calcite
(hardness 3) but not corundum (hardness 9).

STREAK
 The streak of a mineral refers to the colour of the
mark it leaves behind after being rubbed against a
piece of unglazed porcelain. Hematite provides a
good example of how streak works. While this
mineral is usually black, silver or brown-red in
hand sample, its streak is always a dark blood-red.
Chalcopyrite is usually golden-brown in hand
sample, but has a green-black streak. Streak can
be used only for minerals with a Mohs hardness of
7 or less, as minerals with a hardness greater than
7 will themselves scratch the streak plate.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF MINERALS
LUSTRE
 Lustre refers to the way in which the surface of a
mineral reflects light, and is controlled by the
kinds of atoms present and their bonding. It is
described by the following terms
 Adamantine – diamond-like lustre; such
minerals are usually transparent and have a high
refractive index; e.g. diamond, cerussite, cubic
zirconia
 Dull or earthy – no reflections; e.g. kaolinite
 Greasy – the appearance of being coated with an
oily substance; may also be greasy to the touch;
e.g. opal
 Pearly – the whitish iridescence of materials
such as pearls; e.g. stilbite
 Vitreous – like glass; e.g. calcite, quartz, beryl
 Silky – like silk fabric; e.g. satin spar (a variety of
gypsum)
 Resinous – like a resin; e.g. fire opal
 Metallic – metal-like in appearance; e.g. pyrite
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF MINERALS
CLEAVAGE
 Minerals are composed of atoms, which, for each
mineral, have a characteristic arrangement.
Weaknesses in the chemical bonds between these
atoms cause planes of weakness in the crystal
structure. Cleavage is an indication of how well a
mineral breaks along these planes of weakness,
and may be a good diagnostic characteristic.
Cleavage may be described as “perfect”, ”good”,
“distinct” or ”poor”. In transparent minerals or in
thin sections viewed though a microscope,
cleavage may be seen as a series of parallel lines.
 The number of cleavage planes in a mineral may
also aid its identification. Cleavage typically occurs
in either one, two, three, four or six directions.
Micas easily split along their one plane of cleavage
to form thin sheets. Amphiboles exhibit two
cleavage planes. Iceland spar, a variety of calcite,
cleaves readily along three planes of weakness into
distinctive rhombs. Galena breaks along three
cleavage planes producing cubic fractions. Fluorite
and diamond show cleavage in four directions.
Sphalerite exhibits cleavage in six directions. Not
every mineral displays cleavage. For example,
quartz does not have a weakness in its crystal
structure, and therefore does not exhibit cleavage.
When a quartz specimen is broken with a hammer,
it displays conchoidal (shell-like) fracture.

 QUARTZ FAMILY
 A chemical compound consisting of one part
silicon and two parts oxygen. (silicon dioxides)
 It forms at all temperatures that makes it
present in all parts of the world.
 Highly resistant to both mechanical and
chemical weathering.
 It is the most abundant and widely distributed
mineral found at Earth's surface. It is present
and plentiful in all parts of the world. It forms at
all temperatures. It is abundant
in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary
rocks. -It is highly resistant to both mechanical
and chemical weathering. This durability makes
it the dominant mineral of mountaintops and
the primary constituent of beach, river, and
desert sand.
 It is ubiquitous, plentiful and durable. Minable
deposits are found throughout the world.
OCCURRENCE OF QUARTZ
 Quartz occurs as an important constituent of those
igneous rocks which have an excess of silica, such as
granite, rhyolite, pegmatite. It is extremely resistant
to both mechanical and chemical attack, and thus the
breakdown of igneous rocks containing it yields
quartz grains which may accumulate and form the
sedimentary rock sandstone. Also occurs in
metamorphic rocks, as gneisses and schists, while it
forms practically the only mineral of quartzites.
Deposited often from solution and is the most
common vein and gangue mineral. Forms as flint
deposited with chalk on the sea floor in nodular
masses. Solutions carrying silica may replace beds of
limestone with a granular cryptocrystalline quartz
known as chert, or discontinuous beds of chert may
form contemporaneously with the limestone. In
rocks it is associated chiefly with feldspar and
muscovite; in veins with practically the entire range
of vein minerals. Often carries gold and becomes an
important ore of that metal. Occurs in large amount
as sand in stream beds and upon the seashore and as
a constituent of soils.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF QUARTZ

CHEMICAL silicate
CLASSIFICATION
COLOR It occurs in virtually
every color. Common
are clear, white, gray,
purple, yellow, brown,
black, pink, green.
STREAK colorless

LUSTER virteous

DIAPHEINITY Transparent to
translucent

CLEAVAGE None-typically breaks

with a canchoidal
fracture
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF QUARTZ

MOH’S HARDNESS >

SPECIFIC GRAVITY 2.6 TO 2.7

DIAGNOSTIC Conchoidal fracture,

PROPERTIES glassy lustre, hard

CHEMICAL SiO2
COMPOSITION

CRYSTAL SYSTEM Hexagonal

 VARIETIES OF QUARTZ
CRYSTALLINE VARIETIES
 according to color

AMETHYST
 is a shape of quartz that stages from a shiny to dark
or stupid crimson shade. The international’s biggest
deposits of amethysts may be located in Brazil,
Mexico, Uruguay, Russia, France, Namibia and
Morocco. Sometimes amethyst and citrine are
discovered developing within the identical crystal. It
is then called ametrine. An amethyst is fashioned
whilst there’s iron within the location in which it
became formed.
CRYSTALLINE VARIETIES
BLUE QUARTZ
 contains inclusions of fibrous magnesio-riebeckite
or crocidolite.

DUMORTIERITE QUARTZ
 Inclusions of the mineral dumortierite within
quartz pieces regularly bring about silky-
appearing splotches with a blue hue, shades giving
off pink and/or grey colors moreover being found.
“Dumortierite quartz” (every so often called “blue
quartz”) will now and again feature contrasting
light and dark shade zones across the
material.Interest in the positive nice kinds of blue
quartz as a collectible gemstone in particular
arises in India and inside the United States.
CRYSTALLINE VARIETIES
DUMORTIERITE QUARTZ

CITRINE
 Citrine is a spread of quartz whose colour levels
from a faded yellow to brown because of ferric
impurities. Natural citrines are uncommon;
maximum commercial citrines are heat-treated
amethysts or smoky quartzes. However, a
warmth-treated amethyst may have small lines
inside the crystal, as opposed to a herbal citrine’s
cloudy or smokey appearance. It is sort of
impossible to distinguish between cut citrine and
yellow topaz visually, however they range in
hardness.
CRYSTALLINE VARIETIES
CITRINE

MILKY QUARTZ
 Milk quartz or milky quartz is the most not
unusual kind of crystalline quartz. The white
colour is due to minute fluid inclusions of
gasoline, liquid, or each, trapped at some point of
crystal formation, making it of little value for
optical and first-rate gemstone packages.
CRYSTALLINE VARIETIES

ROSE QUARTZ
 is a type of quartz which exhibits a pale purple
to rose red hue. The color is commonly taken
into consideration as due to hint quantities of
titanium, iron, or manganese, inside the fabric.
Some rose quartz includes microscopic rutile
needles which produces an asterism in
transmitted light. Recent X-ray diffraction
research recommend that the shade is because
of skinny microscopic fibers of likely
dumortierite within the quartz.
CRYSTALLINE VARIETIES

SMOKY QUARTZ
 is a grey, translucent model of quartz. It ranges in
readability from nearly entire transparency to a
brownish-grey crystal that is almost opaque. Some
also can be black. The translucency outcomes
from herbal irradiation creating free silicon within
the crystal.
CRYSTALLINE VARIETIES
PRASIOLITE
 Not to be harassed with Praseolite. Prasiolite, also
referred to as vermarine, is a ramification of
quartz that is inexperienced in coloration.

CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE VARIETIES
The cryptocrystalline varieties of quartz may be
divided into two general classes; namely, fibrous and
granular, which, in most cases, are impossible to tell
apart without microscopic aid.
 CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE
VARIETIES
 FIBROUS VARIETIES

CHALCEDONY
 is the general name applied to fibrous varieties. It
is more specifically thought of as a brown,
translucent variety, with a waxy luster, often
mammillary and in other imitative shapes.
Chalcedony has been deposited from aqueous
solutions and is frequently found lining or filling
cavities in rocks. Color and banding give rise to the
following varieties:

1. CARNELIAN RED CHALCEDONY

 CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE
VARIETIES
2. CHRYSOPRASE APPLE-GREEN
CHALCEDONY

3. HELIOTROPE OR BLOODSTONE
A green chalcedony with small red spots in it.
CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE
VARIETIES
4. AGATE
 variegated variety with alternating layers of
chalcedony and opal, or granular cryptocrystalline
quartz. The different colors are usually in delicate,
fine parallel bands which are commonly curved, in
some specimens concentric (Plate XIV). Most
agate used for commercial purposes is colored by
artificial means. Some agates have the different
colors not arranged in bands but irregularly
distributed. Moss agate is a variety in which the
variation in color is due to visible impurities,
often manganese oxide in moss-like patterns.
Wood that has been petrified by replacement by
clouded agate is known as silicified or agatized
wood.
CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE
VARIETIES
5. ONYX
 like agate, is a layered chalcedony and opal,
with layers arranged in parallel planes.

a) Granular Varieties

 GRANULAR VARIETIES

1. FLINT
 something like chalcedony in appearance, but
dull, often dark, in color. It usually occurs in
nodules in chalk and breaks with a prominent
conchoidal fracture, giving sharp edges. Used
for various implements by early man
 CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE
VARIETIES
 FLINT

2. CHERT
 A compact massive rock similar in most
properties to flint, but usually light in color.
CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE
VARIETIES
3. JASPER GRANULAR CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE
QUART
 usually colored red from hematite inclusions.

4. PRASE
 dull green in color; otherwise similar to jasper,
and occurs with it.
 USES OF QUARTZ
 One of the most amazing properties of quartz
is the ability of its crystals to vibrate at a
precise frequencies. These frequencies are so
precise that quartz crystals can be used to
make extremely accurate time-keeping
instruments and equipment that can transmit
radio and television signals with precise and
stable frequencies.
 The tiny devices used for these purposes are
known as “crystal oscillators.” The first crystal
oscillators were developed in the 1920s, and
just twenty years later, tens of millions of them
were needed each year to supply the military
during World War II. Today, billions of quartz
crystals are used to make oscillators for
watches, clocks, radios, televisions, electronic
games, computers, cell phones, electronic
meters, and GPS equipment.
 A wide variety of uses have also been
developed for optical-grade quartz crystals.
They are used to make specialized lenses,
windows and filters used in lasers,
microscopes, telescopes, electronic sensors,
and scientific instruments. The material of
beach sand is now the material of the world’s
most advanced electronic devices.
 USES OF QUARTZ
 Quartz is one of the most useful natural materials.
Its usefulness can be linked to its physical and
chemical properties. It has a hardness of seven on
the Mohs Scale which makes it very durable. It is
chemically inert in contact with most substances.
It has electrical properties and heat resistance that
make it valuable in electronic products. Its luster,
color, and diaphaneity make it useful as
a gemstone and also in the making of glass.
1. In glass making
 - It is one of the primary uses of quartz. Geological
processes have occasionally deposited sands that
are composed of almost 100% quartz grains. These
deposits have been identified and produced as
sources of high purity silica sand. These sands are
used in the glassmaking industry. Quartz sand is
used in the production of container glass, flat plate
glass, specialty glass, and fiberglass.
 USES OF QUARTZ
 Quartz glass sand: High-purity quartz
sandstone suitable for the manufacture of
high-quality glass. "Glass sand" is a sandstone
that is composed almost entirely of quartz
grains. Much of it has been used for container
glass, but some of it has been selected for use
in making lenses for the largest telescopes.
Specimen is about four inches (ten
centimeters across).

2. As a jewelry or as a gemstone
 Quartz makes an excellent gemstone. It is
hard, durable, and usually accepts a brilliant
polish. Popular varieties of quartz that are
widely used as gems include: amethyst,
citrine, rose quartz, smoky quartz,
and aventurine. Agate and jasper are also
varieties of quartz with a microcrystalline
structure.
 USES OF QUARTZ

(As jewelries)

3. As an Abrasive
 The high hardness of quartz, seven on the Mohs Scale,
makes it harder than most other natural substances.
As such it is an excellent abrasive material. Quartz
sands and finely ground silica sand are used for sand
blasting, scouring cleansers, grinding media, and grit
for sanding and sawing.

4. As a Foundry Sand
 Quartz is very resistant to both chemicals and heat. It
is therefore often used as a foundry sand. With a
melting temperature higher than most metals, it can
be used for the molds and cores of common foundry
work. Refractory bricks are often made of quartz sand
because of its high heat resistance. Quartz sand is also
used as a flux in the smelting of metals.
 USES OF QUARTZ

5. Uses in the Petroleum Industry

 Quartz sand has a high resistance to being
crushed. In the petroleum industry, sand
slurries are forced down oil and gas wells under
very high pressures in a process known
as hydraulic fracturing. This high pressure
fractures the reservoir rocks, and the sandy
slurry injects into the fractures. The durable
sand grains hold the fractures open after the
pressure is released. These open fractures
facilitate the flow of natural gas into the well
bore.

6. Quartz Sand in the construction industry

 Quartz sand is used as a filler in the
manufacture of rubber, paint, and putty.
Screened and washed, carefully sized quartz
grains are used as filter media and roofing
granules. Quartz sands are used for traction in
the railroad and mining industries. These sands
are also used in recreation on golf courses,
volleyball courts, baseball fields, children's sand
boxes and beaches.
Importance of Quartz

 Quartz is one of the most well-known minerals

on earth. It occurs in basically all
mineral environments, and is the important
constituent of many rocks. It has many uses
that makes it more important.
 FELDSPAR FAMILY

 A rock-forming tectosilicate minerals that

make up about 41% of the earth’s continent
crust by weight. Feldspars crystallize from
the magma as veins in both intrusive and
extrusive igneous rocks and are also present
in many types of metamorphic rock.
 Any group of aluminosilicate minerals that
contain calcium, sodium or potassium.
 FELDSPAR FAMILY
 Feldspar minerals are essential
components in igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks, to such an extent that
the classification of a number of rocks is
based upon feldspar content.
 Feldspar also belongs to Aluminosilicate
Family which called framework silicates
that composes the earths continental
crusts weight by 50 %
 It originated from a German Word Feldspat;
Feld = field & spat = spar (non opaque
material with good cleavage. / A crystal
structure, easily cleavable and light colored
material. )
 Feldspar act as a flux in cleaning, flowing, &
purifying agent. Compose mainly by;
Sodium Oxide, Potassium Oxide, & Sodium
Oxide.
 Chemical Weathering of Feldspar Result to
Formation of Clay minerals (e.g. illite &
bytownite)
 Properties of Potassium & Sodium.
Feldspar aren't perfectly immiscible.
 FELDSPAR FAMILY

 production od Feldspar
 World production- 20.88 Mt
 Italy (4.7 Mt)
 Turkey (4.5 Mt)
 China (2.0 Mt)
 Thailand (1.04 Mt)
 OCCURRENCE OF
FELDSPAR

 Feldspar is crystallized from magma as veins in

both intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks and
are also present in many types of metamorphic
rock.
 EXPERIMENTAL
METHODS AND TESTING
ON FELDSPAR
 Power X-Ray Diffraction (PXRD)
 Electron Micropobe Analysis (EMPA)
 Single-grain Xray Diffraction ( SXRD)

 Chemical Composition
 All the rock-forming feldspars are
aluminosilicate minerals with the general
formula AT4O8 in which A = potassium,
sodium, or calcium; and T = silicon and
aluminum, with a Si:Al ratio ranging from 3:1
to 1:1. Microcline and orthoclase are
potassium feldspars (KAlSi3O8), usually
designated Or in discussions involving their
end-member composition. Albite
(NaAlSi3O8—usually designated Ab) and
anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8—An) are end-members
of the plagioclase series. Sanidine,
anorthoclase, and the perthites are alkali
feldspars whose chemical compositions lie
between Or and Ab.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF FELDSPAR
CHEMICAL Silicate
CLASSIFICATION

COLOR Usually white, pink,

gray or brown. Also
colorless, yellow,
orange, red, black, blue,
green
STREAK White

LUSTER Vitreous, Pearly on

some cleavage faces.

DIAPHEINITY Usually translucent to

opaque. Rarely
transparent.
CLEAVAGE Perfect in two
directions. Cleavage
planes usually intersect
at or close to a 90
degrees angle
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF FELDSPAR

MOH’S HARDNESS 6.0 to 6.5

SPECIFIC GRAVITY 2.5 to 2.8

DIAGNOSTIC Perfect cleavage, with

PROPERTIES cleavage faces usually
intersecting at or close
to 90 degrees.
Consistent hardness,
specific gravity and
pearly luster on
cleavage faces.
CHEMICAL X(al,Si)4O8 Where X is
COMPOSITION usually potassium,
sodium or calcium, but
rarely can be barium,
rubidium or strontium
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF FELDSPAR

CRYSTAL SYSTEM Triclinic, monoclinic

USES Crushed and powdered

feldspar are important
raw materials for the
manufacture of plate
glass, container glass,
ceramic products, paints,
and many other products.
Varieties orthoclase,
labradorite, oligoclase,
microcline and other
feldspar minerals have
been cut and used as
faceted and cabochon
gems.
GROUPS OF FELDSPAR
 (Crystal System: (Triclinic & Monoclinic) )
Alkali Feldspar
 alkali feldspars may be regarded as mixtures of
sodium aluminosilicate and potassium
aluminosilicate . Both the sodium and
potassium aluminosilicates have several
distinct forms, each form with a different
structure.
Barium Feldspar
 The barium-rich potassium feldspar variety
indicates a comparatively high concentration
of barium in the late-stage liquids. Slight
albitization of plagioclase and secondary
zoning of plagioclase in contact with alkali
feldspar are evidence that crystal cumulates
reacted with late-stage melts or possibly with
late infiltrated hydrothermal fluids.
Plagioclase Feldspar
 is a series of tectosilicate minerals within the
feldspar group. Plagioclase is a continuous
solid solution series, more properly known as
the plagioclase feldspar series
 ALKALI FELDSPAR
 Alkali Feldspar: High Temperature
Environment. (Potassium & Sodium; K-
Feldspar & Na-Feldspar)

EXAMPLE:

ORTHOCLASE (MONOCLINIC)
 Orthoclase is a feldspar mineral with a chemical
composition of KAlSi3O8. It is one of the most
abundant rock-forming minerals of the
continental crust. Orthoclase is most widely
known as the pink feldspar found in many
granites and as the mineral assigned a hardness
of "6" in the Mohs hardness scale.
 Orthoclase has several commercial uses. It is a
raw material used in the production of glass,
ceramic tile, porcelain, dinnerware, bathroom
fixtures, and other ceramics. It is used as an
abrasive in scouring powders and polishing
compounds. It is also cut as a gemstone. An
adularescent gem material known as
moonstone is an intergrowth of orthoclase and
albite.
ALKALI FELDSPAR

 ORTHOCLASE (MONOCLINIC)
 ALKALI FELDSPAR
SANIDINE (MONOCLINIC)
 *stable at the highest temperature
 Sanidine is the high temperature form of
potassium feldspar with a general formula
K(AlSi3O8. Sanidine is found most typically in
felsic volcanic rocks such as obsidian, rhyolite
and trachyte. It crystallizes in the monoclinic
crystal system
 Sanidine ((K,Na)AlSi3O8) is the monoclinic
high-temperature alkaline K–Na feldspar,
which usually contains about 30%, but
sometimes up to 62% sodium (Ab)
component. It is found only in young volcanic
discharges or (volcanic) rocks (rhyolite,
trachyte and dacite). It forms by the
crystallization of lava at high temperatures
and its rapid cooling. Sanidine crystallizes
orthoclase during slow cooling of lava.
Sanidine, as a high-temperature alkali feldspar,
is not stable in rocks on the surface or shallow
under the surface of the Earth, and gradually
recrystallize in orthoclase over time.
 ALKALI FELDSPAR

 SANIDINE (MONOCLINIC)
 ALKALI FELDSPAR
MICROLINE (TRICLINIC)
 stable at the lowest temperature.
 Microcline (KAlSi3O8) is the triclinic low-
temperature K–feldspar stable at
temperatures lower than 500 °C. It is usually
formed by recrystallization from feldspar, and
sometimes by direct crystallization from
magma and hydrothermal processes.
Microcline typically displays albite and
pericline twining.
 ALKALI FELDSPAR
 Anorthoclase (triclinic)
 Anorthoclase is a Na - rich feldspar with
approximately equal amounts of the Anorthite
(Ca) and orthoclase (K) components.
Generally anorthoclase occurs in Na - rich
volcanic rocks. Like the other alkali feldspars,
it has perfect {001} and {010} cleavages.
Anorthoclase sometimes shows twinning, but
generally not the multiple twinning seen in
the plagioclase feldspars, but a crosshatched
twinning similar to that seen in microcline,
but on a very fine scale.
 BARIUM FELDSPAR
 Barium Feldspar: also an Alkali Felddpar but
the Potassium are replaced by sodium.
(Barrium & Sodium; Ba-Feldspar & Na-
Feldspar)

EXAMPLE:
HYALOPHANE (MONOCLINIC)
 Hyalophane or jaloallofane is a crystalline
mineral, part of the feldspar group of
tectosilicates. It is considered a barium-rich
potassium feldspar. Hyalophane has
sometimes been used as a gemstone.
 Crystals of Hyalophane are rarely found clean
enough for faceting. The source that is is
current of rare crystals is Busovaca, Bosnia.
 BARIUM FELDSPAR
CELSIAN (MONOCLINIC)
 Celsian is an uncommon feldspar mineral,
barium aluminosilicate, BaAl2Si2O8. The
mineral occurs in contact metamorphic rocks
with significant barium content.

 Celsian is barium feldspar with a chemical

composition BaAl2Si2O8. It forms part of the
feldspar group and belongs to the celsian-
hyalophane series and the celsian-orthoclase
series. It has some resemblance to anorthite,
and it has four distinct polymorph.
PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR
 Plagioclase Feldspar: Immiscibility of
plagioclase solid solutions are complex than
the gap in the alkali feldspar.
EXAMPLE:
ALBITE (TRICLINIC)
 Albite is a common feldspar mineral, a sodium
aluminosilicate (NaAlSi3O8) that occurs most
widely in pegmatites and felsic igneous rocks
such as granites. It may also be found in low-
grade metamorphic rocks and as authigenic
albite in certain sedimentary varieties. Albite
usually forms brittle, glassy crystals that may
be colourless, white, yellow, pink, green, or
black. It is used in the manufacture of glass and
ceramics, but its primary geologic importance
is as a rock-forming mineral.
PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR

ANDESINE (TRICLINIC)
 Andesine is a silicate mineral, a member of the
plagioclase feldspar solid solution series. Its
chemical formula is (Ca, Na)(Al, Si)4O8, where
Ca/(Ca + Na) (% anorthite) is between 30%-
50%.

 Andesine occurs in intermediate igneous rocks

such as diorite, syenite and andesite. It
characteristically occurs in metamorphic rocks
of granulite to amphibolite facies commonly
exhibiting antiperthite texture.
PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR

LABRADORITE (TRICLINIC)
 Labradorite is an unusual mineral. It can
display a beautiful iridescent play of colors,
caused by internal fractures in the mineral
that reflect light back and forth, dispersing it
into different colors. This effect, known as
labradorescence, gives Labradorite its appeal
and fame. Specimens sold to collectors are
usually polished or sliced by dealers to fully
bring out this effect. Sliced slabs are
sometimes sold by dealers in water, which
enhances the effect. Labradorite belongs to
the Plagioclase Feldspar group, an
isomorphous solid solution series.
PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR
BYTOWNITE (TRICLINIC)
 Bytownite is a rock forming mineral occurring
in mafic igneous rocks such as gabbros and
anorthosites. It also occurs as phenocrysts in
mafic volcanic rocks. It is rare in metamorphic
rocks. It is typically associated with pyroxenes
and olivineBytownite is a rarer form of
feldspar, more commonly seen as a faceted
gemstone then as a collectors mineral. It is
usually translucent without a crystal form.
 A rare form of Feldspar, comprises 10-30%
Albite and 70-90% Anorthite feldspar. Some of
the stones have a distinct resemblance to
Andalusite
PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR
ANORTHITE (TRICLINIC)
 Anorthite belongs to the Plagioclase Feldspar
group, an isomorphous solid solution series.
 Anorthite is the calcium endmember of the
plagioclase feldspar mineral series. The
chemical formula of pure anorthite is
CaAl2Si2O8. Anorthite is found in mafic
igneous rocks. Anorthite is rare on the Earth
but abundant on the Moon.
 (Chemical Weathering: formation of clay
minerals ( e.g. illite & kaolinite ) ]
PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR
A. ILLITE
 llite is a secondary mineral precipitate, and an
example of a phyllosilicate, or layered alumino-
silicate. Structurally, illite is quite similar to
muscovite with slightly more silicon, magnesium,
iron, and water and slightly less tetrahedral
aluminium and interlayer potassium. Illite, any of
a group of mica-type clay minerals widely
distributed in marine shales and related
sediments. Illite contains more water and less
potassium than true micas, but it has a micalike
sheet structure and is poorly crystallized. It may
form a chemical series with both muscovite and
montmorillonite; it is a weathering product of
muscovite and alters to montmorillonite under
humid conditions.
PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR

B. KAOLINITE
 Kaolinite is a clay mineral, part of the group of
industrial minerals with the chemical
composition Al2Si2O5(OH)4. It is a layered
silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet of
silica (SiO4) linked through oxygen atoms to
one octahedral sheet of alumina (AlO6)
octahedra. Kaolinite is a layered silicate clay
mineral which forms from the chemical
weathering of feldspar or other aluminum
silicate minerals. It is usually white, with
occasionally a red color impurity due to iron
oxide, or blue or brown from other minerals.
Kaolinite has a low shrink–swell capacity and a
low cation-exchange capacity, making it ideal
for many industrial applications.
 USES OF FELDSPAR
 •product hardness
 •durability
 •Resistance to Chemical Corrosion
 Ceramics Making
 -Alkali's in Feldspar (CaO,KO,& NaO) act as
flux:lowering the melting temperature of a
mixture.
 In 2008 an est. of 66% of Feldspar in US are
consumed/used in Glassmaking.
 •sanitary ware
 •pottery
 •tableware
 •tile
 USES OF FELDSPAR
 Largest Feldspar Mine is The "Mckinney Mine"
according to The Little Switzerland Business
Association

Uses in Earth Science. & Archaelogy.

 •K-Ar dating (Potassium-Argon dating) : for
radioactive decay of an isotope of a potassium
into argon.
 •Argon-Argon dating: radioactive dating
invented to supersede (K/Ar dating) *only
needs a rock fragment or an mineral grain.
 •Luminescence dating: Identification of
exposure of an mineral grains to sunlight.

 (Citron Feldspar is the raresy kind of Feldspar)

PYROXENE FAMILY
 The pyroxenes (commonly abbreviated
to Px) are a group of important rock-
forming inosilicate minerals found in
many igneous and metamorphic rocks.
 The name pyroxene is derived from the
Ancient Greek words for fire (πυρ)
and stranger (ξένος).
 Pyroxenes have the general formula
XY(Si,Al)2O6
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION -XYZ2O6, in
which X= Na+, Ca2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Li+; Y=
Mn2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Fe3+, Al3+, Cr3+, Ti4+; and Z=
Si4+, Al3+
 OCCURRENCE OF
PYROXENE

 Diopside, which forms in metamorphosed

carbonates, is the primary metamorphic
pyroxene.

 They are found in almost every variety

of igneous rock and also occur in rocks of
widely different compositions formed under
conditions of regional and contact
metamorphism.
 PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF
PYROXENE FAMILY
SHAPE Orthorhombic or
monoclinic

LUSTER Glassy or metallic

COLOR Black

STREAK White, light green or

light brown

HARDNESS 5-6.5 on Mohs

Hardness Scale

CLEAVAGE Two planes that meet

at nearly a 90-degree
angle
 CHEMICAL
SUBDIVISION OF
PYROXENES
PYROXENE MINERALS
 CLINOPYROXENES (monoclinic;
abbreviated CPx)

 Aegirine, NaFe3+Si2O6
 Augite, (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al,Ti)(Si,Al)2O6
 Clinoenstatite, MgSiO3
 Diopside, CaMgSi2O6
 Esseneite, CaFe3+[AlSiO6]
 Hedenbergite, CaFe2+Si2O6
 Jadeite, Na(Al,Fe3+)Si2O6
 Jervisite, (Na,Ca,Fe2+)(Sc,Mg,Fe2+)Si2O6
 Johannsenite, CaMn2+Si2O6
 Kanoite, Mn2+(Mg,Mn2+)Si2O6
 Kosmochlor, NaCrSi2O6
 Namansilite, NaMn3+Si2O6
 Natalyite, NaV3+Si2O6
 Omphacite, (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe2+,Al)Si2O6
 Petedunnite, Ca(Zn,Mn2+,Mg,Fe2+)Si2O6
 Pigeonite, (Ca,Mg,Fe)(Mg,Fe)Si2O6
 Spodumene, LiAl(SiO3)2
PYROXENE MINERALS

 ORTHOPYROXENES (orthorhombic;
abbreviated OPx)

 Hypersthene, (Mg,Fe)SiO3
 Donpeacorite, (MgMn)MgSi2O6
 Enstatite, Mg2Si2O6
 Ferrosilite, Fe2Si2O6
 Nchwaningite, Mn2+2SiO3(OH)2•(H2O)
TYPES OF PYROXENE
HYPERSTHENE
 is a common rock-
forming inosilicate mineral belonging to the
group of orthorhombic pyroxenes.
 - Its chemical formula is (Mg,Fe)SiO3. It is
found in igneous and some metamorphic
rocks as well as in stony and iron meteorites.
 AUGITE
 A rock-forming mineral that commonly occurs in
mafic and intermediate igneous rocks such as
basalt, gabbro, andesite and diorite.
 The most common pyroxene mineral and a
member of the clinopyroxene group.

CLINOPYROXENE
 a mineral of the pyroxene group crystallizing in
the monoclinic system.
 AUGITE

 The name Augite comes from the Greek word

augites meaning brightness referring to the
bright luster that augite will periodically exhibit.
 Augite is a mineral that has been found beyond
the planet Earth.
 It is a common mineral in lunar basalts and has
been discovered in some stone meteorites.
 Augite does not have any chemical, optical or
physical properties that are very useful.
 It is possible for geologists to use the presence
of Augite to determine some factors of magmatic
chemistry or as target minerals for some
radiometric dating.
 Because of the chemical structure, Augite is
really considered more of a group than a single
mineral
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF AUGITE

CHEMICAL Single chain inosilicate

CLASSIFICATION

COLOR Green, black, or brown

LUSTRE Vitreous on a cleavage

and crystal faces

MOHS HARDNESS 5.5 to 6

SPECIFIC GRAVITY 3.2 to 3.6

CHEMICAL (Ca, Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)

COMPOSITION (Si,Al)2O6

CRYSTAL SYSTEM Monoclinic

 TYPES OF AUGITE
FASSAITE
 is a variety of Augite found in Italy that has a
very low iron content and light green in color.

JEFFERSONITE
 is a variety of Augite that is rich in zinc and
manganese and has been found in New Jersey.
 TYPES OF AUGITE

 Lunar Basalt Meteorite

 Augite found in moon

 USES OF AUGITE

 Augite does not have any physical, optical, or

chemical properties that makes it especially
useful. It is therefore one of the few minerals
that has no commercial use.
USES OF PYROXENE

 They are an important component of many

decorative building stones, where their dark
green to black colors contribute to the stones’
decorative
 -Spodumene is mined as an important source
of lithium, used in ceramics, and is also prized
as a gemstone.
 A pyroxene is an important mined source of
lithium, used in heat-resistant ceramics,
medication, and batteries.
 IMPORTANCE OF
PYROXENE
 In Our Earth: The Geologic Importance of
Pyroxene
 -pyroxene crystals were simply the first
crystals to form as the magma began to cool.
When the remaining magma erupted and
froze to form volcanic glass, these early
formed crystals were distinct from the
surrounding glass.
 -Pyroxene minerals in igneous rocks are
commonly associated with olivine,
plagioclase, biotite and amphibole minerals
(especially hornblende).
 In Our Society: The Economic Importance
of Pyroxene
 They are an important component of many
decorative building stones, where their dark
green to black colors contribute to the
stones’ decorative pattern.
 Pyroxene in the Upper Midwest:
 -Pyroxenes are important accessory
components in many of mafic igneous rocks
across the Upper Midwest
 HORNBLENDE

Hornblende as a Rock-Forming
Mineral

 Hornblende is a rock-forming mineral that is

an important constituent in acidic and
intermediate igneous rocks such as granite,
diorite, syenite, andesite, and rhyolite. It is also
found in metamorphic rocks such as gneiss and
schist. A few rocks consist almost entirely of
hornblende. Amphibolite is the name given to
metamorphic rocks that are mainly composed
of amphibole minerals. Lamprophyre is an
igneous rock that is mainly composed of
amphibole and biotite with a feldspar ground
mass.
 HORNBLENDE
 A field and classroom name used for a dark-
colored amphibole minerals found in many types
of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
 May vary in chemical composition but are all
double-chain inosilicates with very similar
physical properties.
 Generalized composition:
 (Ca,Na)2-3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)5(Al,Si)8O 22 (OH,F) 2
 Note that calcium, sodium, magnesium, iron,
aluminum, silicon, fluorine and hydroxyl can all
vary in abundance. This creates a huge number of
compositional variants. Chromium, titanium,
nickel, manganese, and potassium can also be part
of the complex composition and further indicates
the generalization of the formula given above.
 HORNBLENDE
 There are two types of hornblende. They are
ferrohornblende and magnesiohornblende.
They are an isomorphous mixture of three
molecules; a calcium-iron-magnesium silicate,
an aluminium-iron-magnesium silicate, and an
iron-magnesium silicate.
 The name hornblende is applied to a group of
minerals that can be distinguished from each
other only by detailed chemical analysis. The
two end-member hornblendes—iron-rich
ferrohornblende and magnesiumrich
magnesiohornblende—are both calcium-rich
and monoclinic in crystal structure.
 Other elements, such as chromium, titanium,
and nickel, can also appear in the crystal
structures of the group.
 HORNBLENDE

 The concentrations of these elements are an

indicator of the metamorphic grade of the
mineral. Specimens are green, dark green, or
brownish green to black in color.
 Crystals are usually bladed and unterminated,
and they often show a pseudohexagonal cross
section. Well-formed crystals are short to long
prisms. They also occurs as cleavable masses
and radiating groups.
 The mineral forms in metamorphic rocks,
especially gneisses, hornblende schists,
amphibolites, and magnesium- and iron-rich
igneous rocks.
 The word it is derived from the German horn
and blenden, to ‘deceive’ in allusion to its
similarity in appearance to metal-bearing ore
minerals.
 OCCURRENCE OF
HORNBLENDE
 It is a common component of many magmatic
and metamorphic rocks such as granite,
syenite, diorite, gabbro, basalt, andesite,
gneiss and schist.
 It is the main mineral of amphibolites. Very
dark brown to black hornblendes containing
titanium are normally called basaltic
hornblendes, as they are usually a component
of basalt and related rocks. Hornblende easily
replaces chlorite and epidote.
 A rare kind of hornblende contains less than
5% of iron oxide, is gray to white in color and
is named Edenite from Orange County, New
York.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF HORNBLENDE

CHEMICAL Silicate
CLASSIFICATION

COLOR Usually black, dark

green, dark brown

STREAK White, colorless-

(brittle, often, leaves
cleavage debris behind
instead of a streak)

LUSTER vitreous

DIAPHEINITY Translucent to nearby

opaque

CLEAVAGE Two directions

intersecting at 124 and
56 degrees
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF HORNBLENDE

MOH’S HARDNESS 5 to 6

SPECIFIC GRAVITY 2.9 to 3.5 (varies

depending upon
composition)

DIAGNOSTIC Cleavage, color, elongate

PROPERTIES habit

CHEMICAL (Ca,Na)2-
COMPOSITION 3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)5(Al,Si
)8O 22 (OH,F) 2

CRYSTAL SYSTEM Monoclinic

USES Very little industrial use

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
OF HORNBLENDE
 TYPES OF
HORNBLENDE
 FERRO-HORNBLENDE

 MAGNESIO-HORNBLENDE
USES OF HORNBLENDE
 It is the most abundant mineral in a rock
known as amphibolite, which has numerous
uses.
 Crushed and used as road construction and
railway ballast.
 It was cut to be used as a dimension stone.
 The highest quality pieces are cut, polished
and sold under the name “black granite” for
use as building facades, floor tiles,
countertops and other architectural uses.
 It was used to estimate the depth of
crystallization of plutonic rocks. Those with
low aluminum content are associated with
crystallization at shallow depth, while those
with high aluminum content are associated
with greater crystallization depths. This
information is also useful for understanding
the crystallization of magma and for mineral
research.
 Engineering
Significance of
Rock Forming
Minerals
 The civil engineers need to know the
properties of rocks precisely to enable them to
consider different rocks for any required
purpose, i.e., as foundation rocks, as road
meta, as concrete aggregate, as building
stones, as flooring or roofing material, as
decorative material etc. All properties of rocks
are, in turn, depended on the properties of
their constituent minerals. Thus, properties of
civil engineering importance such as their
strength, durability and appearance of rocks
can be assessed only with the knowledge of
the minerals that form rocks i.e. rock-forming
minerals.
 The economic minerals, since they are scare,
do not influence the properties of rocks and
are hence irrelevant from the civil engineering
point of view. However, if they happen to occur
in large quantities, their economic value will
not permit them to be used either as
construction materials or as foundation sites.