Unit-III Limitations

Opearting limitations-Manoeuvring envelope-

Gust envelope-Propellers-Engine failure or
Engine stop-Design feature of absorption
 Operating limitations
1. Operating limit speeds
2. Loads and safety factors
3. Loads on the structure
4. Load factor
 1. Operating limit speeds
• In service ACFT must observe certain speed
Limitations
• Limitations may be minimum and maximum
speeds, but in each case ensure for safe
operation
• Factors set limitations are following
– Strength of aircraft structure
– Stiffness of aircraft structure
– Adequate control of aircraft
 2. Loads and safety factors
i) Limit load- Max load to be expected in service
ii) Ultimate load-Failing load of the structure
iii) Factor of Safety(FOS)=UL/LL
• Aircraft FOS=1.5
• FOSACFT < FOSO.Engg.tools
Reason: Negotiation b/wn Weight and FOS
 3. Loads on the structure
• Airframe need a enough strength to carry level
and manoeuvre flight loads
• Be strong enough to withstand whatever
manoeuvres are specified for the aircraft and
by gusts.
• Should have sufficient stiffness to ensure that
phenomena aileron reversal,flutter and
divergence do not occur within permittted
speed range of the aircraft.
 4. Load factors
𝐿
• Load factor (n)=
𝑊
• Load factor(in terms of g) :
– 1) Level flight
– 2) Manoeuvre flight
• The limit load is given in terms of load factor
to make requirement general to all aircraft
• Limit Load factors are depend on weight of an
aircraft Aircraft Fail/Ultimate ACFT Load factor
load(in lb) weight(in lb) ( no unit)
A 10,000 4,000 2.5
B 10,000 5,000 2.0
Manoeuvre envelope (V-n Diagram)
 Manoeuvre envelope (V-n Diagram)
• A Plot sets the maximum load factors which must
be allowed for during manoeuvres
• Plot depends on design category of the aircraft
• i.e., For normal category aircraft, the positive
limit load factor may not be less than 2.5 and
need not be more than 3.8; Negative limit load
factor may not be less than -1.0
• For aerobatic category aircraft the positive limit
load factor is 6.0 ; Negative limit load factor may
not be less than -3.0
 Manoeuvre envelope (V-n Diagram)
1. The CL,Max Boundary
2. Design Manoeuvering speed VA
3. Design cruising speed VC
4. Design dive speed VD
5. Negative load factors
6. The negative stall
7. Manoeuvre boundaries
 1) CL,Max Boundary
• The line OA is determined by the CL,max of the
aircraft
• The lift, and load factor for a given weight,
depends on the angle of attack of the wing
and the airspeed.(different speeds, different L)
• The maximum lift will occur at the angle of
attack where CL is a maximum.
• At this AOA the lift will increase with speed as
shown OA
Relation b/wn n and AOA
 1) CL,Max Boundary
• At point A n reaches its positive limit.
Speed below point A—wing L< Limit load factor
(Can’t exceed limit load factor)
Speed above point A—wing L>Limit load factor
(Can exceed limit load factor )
Manoeuvres at speeds above Point A have a potential to
cause permanent deformation structure/structural failure if
the ultimate load is exceeded
This does not mean that any manoeuvre at a speed greater
than point A will always cause structural damage; manoeuvres
may be performed safely provided that the limit load factor is
not exceeded.
 2) Design manoeuvring speed VA
• The highest speed at which sudeen, full elevator
defelection(nose up) can be made wiithout exceeding
limit load factor.
• When estabilishing VA the aeroplane is assumed to be
flying in steady level flight, at point A1; and the pitch
control is suddenlymoved to obtain extreme positive
pitch acceleration(nose up).
• VA is slower than the speed at the intersection of the
CLMAX line and the positive limit load factor line (point
A ) to safeguard the tail structure because of the higher
load on the tailplane during the pitch manouvere
 3) Design cruising speed VC
• Point c is the design cruise speed.
• This is aspeed selected by the designerand
used to assess the strength requirements in
the cruise.
• It must give adequate spacing from VB and VD
to allow forspeed upsets.
 4) Design dive speed VD
• Point Dis the design dive speed VD.
• This is the maximum speed which has to be
considered when assessing the strength of the
aircraft.
• It is based on the principle of an upset
occuring when the aircraft is flying VC,
ressulting in a shallow dive, during ehich the
speed increases, untill recovery is effected.
 5) Negative load factors
• In normal flying and manoeuvres is not likely
that very large negative g forces will
beproduced, however some negative g forcrs
may occur during manoeuvres and the aircraft
must be made strong enough to withstand
them,
 6) The negative stall
• If the angle of attack of the wing is increased
in the negative direction , it will eventually
reach an angle at which it will stall.
• The line OH represents the negative
CLMAXboundary. For large aircraft a limit load
factor -1 must be considered up to VC.
• From VC to VD the negative load factor varies
linearly from -1 to 0.
 7) Manoeuvre Boundaries
• Taking into account the limiting values of positive and
negative load factor, and the maximum speed to be
considered, the aircraft is therefore safe to operate
within the boundaries .
• Line SL represents level 1g flight.
• Line SA shows the load factors that could be produced
by pitching the wing to its stalling angle.
• Line ACD is the limmit set by the maximum positive g
which the airframe is required to withstand.
• Line OH shows the negative load factors that could be
produced with the wiing at is negative stalling angle,
and line HFE is the negative g limit.
 Gust loads
• The structural weight of an aircraft must be
kept to a minimum while maintaining the
required strength.
• The following gust strengths were first
formulated in the late 1940’s and thier
continued effectiveness has been verified by
regular examination of actual flight data
recorder traces.
Gust loads
 Propeller Limitations
• A propeller must be able to absorption of
shaft power developed by engine and also
operate with maximum efficiency throughout
the required envelope of the aircraft.
• Limitation depends on following factors
1. Tip speed
2. Ground clearence
 1) Tip speed
• If the tip velocity is too high the blade tips will
approach the local speed of sound and
compressibility effects will decrease thrust and
increase rotational drag.
• Supersonic tip speed will considerably reduce
the efficiency of a propeller and increase the
noise it generates.
• This imposes a limit on propeller diameter and
RPM, and theTAS at which it can be used.
 2) Ground clearance
• Adequate ground clearance and the need to
mount the engines of a multi-engine aircraft
as close to the fuselage as possible to
minimise the thrust arm.
• Increasing the propeller diameter requires the
engine to be mounted further out on the
wing to maintain adequate fuselage clearance.
 Design features of power absorption
• To increase power absorption several
characterstics of the propeller can be
adjusted.
• The usual method is to increase the solidity of
the propeller.
• Propeller solidity is the ratio of the total fronal
area of the blades to the area of the propeller
disc.
Propeller Solidity
 Design features of power absorption
• Increase in solidity can be achieved by:
1. Increasing the chord of each blade.
This increases the solidity, but blade aspect
ratio is reduced, making the propeller less efficient.
2. Increasing the number of blades
Power absorption is increased without
increasing tip speed or reducing the aspect ratio.
Increasing the number of blades beyond a
certain number will reduce overall efficiency.
Engine failure