Testing of concrete in structures

The bible of concrete testing……

 Categories of concrete testing
• Control testing : Carried out by contractor to verify material quality
(Cubes are collected as per sampling frequency and tested)

• Compliance testing : Carried out by the owner to judge compliance with

specification
(Cubes are collected by P.M.C. or by P.W.D.)

• Secondary testing : Carried out on hardened concrete when in doubt

about reliability of Control and/or Compliance testing. All testing which
is NOT planned before start of construction falls in this category.
(N.D.T. is one example of this testing)
 Categories of Secondary testing

• Specification compliance : Cube test results fail – there is a contractual

dispute…..

• Assessment on in-situ quality and integrity : Establishing current adequacy of

the structure and its future performance due to change in loading, accidents,
deterioration etc…..
Table : Symptoms related to the most common sources of deterioration
Roller Press building of a cement plant in Sri Lanka
 Secondary beam

Primary girder

Inclined crack in the primary girder at the secondary beam location is a structural crack.
 Circular marks at U.P.V. test locations

Inclined orientation of the crack suggests that shear may be the underlying cause. Note the circular
marks left on the beam surface at U.P.V. test locations.
Supporting beam Supported beam Design reinforcement in this region to
support a shear = Vu (1 – (hb / D)

Design for inter-face shear transfer at beam junctions.

Critical section for shear transfer
lies at face of support
 (a) Conceptual model
Prismatic strut Bottle-shaped strut
Splitting crack
in bottle-shaped strut

(b) Concrete struts and load paths in the beam

Truss model for load-path in a beam loaded on top

Failure due to lack of support for reaction from secondary beam.
‘d’

Load applied within a distance ‘d’ from face of support.

Location of critical section as per Nilson (ACI Code).
 How many bars?
Bar diameter?

Beam junction detailing recommended in the SP:34.

Vertically oriented transverse cracks originating from the beam soffit are indicative of over-loading
in bending. This is a structural crack.
Single glass tell-tale for crack monitoring
Double glass tell-tale for crack monitoring
Crack monitoring gauge (left) and mounted on concrete surface (right).
Crack microscope (background) and crack comparator (foreground).
Failure of beam-column connection due top improper anchorage of longitudinal rebars.
Reinforcement bridging the crack

Reinforcement for prevention of sliding shear failure when a heavy reaction is applied close
to free end of a beam.
Cracking of R.C.C. slab due to differential settlement of a masonry pier. This is again a structural crack.
Corrosion-induced cracking in a R.C. column. Note the corroded longitudinal reinforcement seen
after removal of grit finish and cover concrete in a column.
Corrosion induced longitudinal cracks in beam soffit.
Spalling of cover concrete due to reinforcement corrosion in slab.
A view of the fire fighting operation in the Bagree market.
One of the elevations of the fire damaged Block-A.
Cracking and spalling of concrete in beams and columns of top floors.
Spalling of cover concrete in slabs due to fire exposure. Note the soot deposit in the slab soffit.
Severe fire induced spalling of cover concrete and exposure of corroded reinforcement. Note that
some bars have fractured due to high strains.
Cracking due to thermal effects. Crack is localised at junction between the parapet masonry and
R.C. Slab.
Shrinkage crack
in perimeter of
aggregate particle

Aggregate particle

Air void

Shrinkage induced ‘no-load’ micro-cracks in concrete in this fluourescent microscopic image of a

concrete specimen.
Plastic shrinkage cracks in a concrete pavement.
These cracks are caused by the rapid exaporation of mix water (not bleed water) when concrete is
in the plastic state (or early stages of set).
These cracks are caused by settlement of plastic concrete around fixed reinforcement bars due to
evaporation of bleed water. These cracks are localised at reinforcement locations.
Planning a Non-Destructive Test Programme
 Identify the purpose of Secondary testing

• Specification compliance (Type -1 testing): Cube test results fail – there is a

contractual dispute…..strength of in-situ concrete has to be
estimated……structural adequacy has to be confirmed.

• Assessment on in-situ quality and integrity (Type-2 testing): Establishing

current adequacy of the structure and its future performance……..check
integrity of structural elements……..take undistressed elements as the
benchmark……….establish strength relationships………..confirm future
performance.
 No. of samples for 28-day strength test = 4 + 1 = 5 (15 cubes)

Cube test results are unacceptable: This case requires Type-1 testing
Type-2 testing
Typical distress mapping report.
Type-2 testing
What test methods are available for the Type-1 and the Type-2 testing?
Can be used for
strength estimates
by developing
calibration curves
ACI
 These number of
individual readings will
give only a single result.
For example, the 12
Schmidt hammer readings
will give ONE rebound
number.

For a valid analysis, at least 40 results are required in the case of Schmidt hammer
and U.P.V. measurements
 In-situ concrete variability

Typical within-member variation of concrete strength

 Top-face

Beam bottom-face / soffit

Typical relative percentage strength contours for a beam

 Top-face

Bottom-face

Typical relative percentage strength contours for a wall

Typical equivalent cube strengths measured at site
This is the concrete
grade for which the
structural member This is the Target Mean Strength
is designed for which mix is designed

Typical relationship between standard specimen and in-situ strengths

A bridge girder or a long-span beam in a building made from a
number of concrete batches
 Estimation of concrete grade from strength test results obtained from
N.D.T.

fck = fcu – k s’

Where
fck = Concrete grade
fcu = Estimated concrete strength from N.D.T.
k = Confidence level
s’ = Standard deviation
 ≈ 9 cores

Recommended by IS 456:2000 when at least 30 test results are

available
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (U.P.V.) tests
Propagation of mechanical (or stress) waves in a large elastic solid occurs as:

(a) Compressional or longitudinal or P-waves

(b) Shear or transverse or S-waves

(c) Surface or Rayleigh waves

‘Push’ travels along the wave

‘P’ waves are analogous to sound waves travelling through air. They have the highest velocity.
Creating ‘P’ waves with a ‘flexible’ spring.
Propagation of ‘S’ waves through a solid. These waves have a lower velocity than ‘P’ waves.
Creating ‘S’ waves with a ‘flexible’ spring.
Surface waves have the lowest velocity. Shear and surface wave velocity is about 55 – 60% of
‘P’ wave velocity.
 ‘P’ wave velocity is given by:

K varies within a very narrow range. As μ increases from 0.15 to 0.25 (67% increase), K increases
from 1.06 to 1.20 (13% increase)

Hence, variations in E and in ρ have a larger effect on V when compared to variations in μ.

In concrete, depending upon quality, V typically ranges from 3 to 5 KM/s

 Path length

Diagram of a typical U.P.V. Instrument circuit

U.P.V. apparatus
 Transmitter / receiver

U.P.V. Apparatus (at Roorkee)

 Before testing, rough or trowelled surfaces
shall be smoothened using a grinder.

L
As per Clause 5.1, minimum path length for
direct transmission involving one unmoulded
surface should be 150 mm.

As per Clause 5.1, semidirect pulse velocities

may be up to 0.5 KM/s lower than direct pulse
velocities for the same test location.

Indirect testing is least representative of

concrete quality. Direct pulse velocities on the
same concrete can be 1 KM/s higher as per
Clause 5.4.1 of the IS code. Minimum path
lengths for unmoulded surfaces should be 400
mm.
Pulse velocity measurement configurations
 Path length

Transmission direction

U.P.V. testing using direct transmission path

 Path length

Transmission direction

U.P.V. testing using direct transmission path

 Path length

U.P.V. testing using semi-direct transmission path

U.P.V. testing using indirect transmission path
U.P.V. testing using indirect transmission path
Transducer arrangement for indirect transmission paths

1
V
 Path length, transit time and pulse velocity in a U.P.V. Test
(to confirm repeatability of measured velocities, a set of 2 readings should be taken at every test
location)
 25 – 500 mm

V = n λ . Consider a UPV of 4 KM/s.

4000 m/s = 150 x 103 x λ

or λ ≈ 25 mm ≈ size of aggregate / min. dimension of member.
These transducers can be used for path
lengths of up to 10 m as for example in TG
A frequency higher than 150 kHz will cause rapid wave attenuation
foundations, rafts etc.
because aggregate size (25 mm) > pulse wave-length!!

For most practical applications, 50 kHz transducers are ok.

For concrete, the upper limit of transducer frequency is 500 kHz

which corresponds to a wave length (and aggregate size) of about
10 mm!!!
Beyond 100 mm path length, pulse velocity
is almost independent of path length

Effect of path length on pulse velocity

 Minimum path length (Cl. 5.3, IS 13311 (Part 1):1992)

MSA Minimum path length

≤ 20 mm 100 mm
Otherwise heterogeneity of
20 mm – 40 mm 150 mm concrete will affect results

(Measured pulse velocities need to be corrected for these conditions)

For 50 kHz transducers, the minimum lateral dimension of

the tested member should be in the range of 80 – 100 mm.
Effect of moisture condition on pulse velocity
Pulse velocity correction factors as a function of ambient temperature
 Service load stresses have an insignificant affect on pulse
velocities.

Cracking will affect transmission

paths in this direction.

No effect of cracking on transmission

paths in this direction.

Flexural crack due to beam bending.

How to account for the effect of steel reinforcing bars?
Vs ≈ 1.55 (Vc)

Plan view
Corrections to measured pulse velocities
 Reinforcement bar parallel to the test surface (surface probing)

Reinforcement bar parallel to direction of propagation (direct transmission)

Transit time, T, in either of the configurations is given by

Vs ≈ 1.55 (Vc)
 Corrections to measured pulse velocities

Presence of steel has a negligible effect in this case

Corrections shall be applied to UPVs from semi-direct and in-direct transmission paths to get equivalent
cross-probing velocities. Indirect testing is least representative of
concrete quality. Direct pulse velocities on the
As per Clause 5.1, semidirect pulse velocities same concrete can be 1 KM/s higher as per
may be up to 0.5 KM/s lower than direct pulse Clause 5.4.1 of the IS code. Minimum path
velocities for the same test location. lengths for unmoulded surfaces should be 400
mm.
Applications of U.P.V. testing
 Check on uniformity of concrete quality in an element

Edge clearance
= 25 mm

25 0 mm c/c

25 0 mm c/c

Grid markings for U.P.V. Testing. Number of test locations should be at least 30 and preferably 40
Check on uniformity of concrete quality in an element.
 Measurement of concrete uniformity

Top of beam

Beam soffit

Pulse velocity contours for a beam made from several concrete batches.

Construction methodology C.o.V of U.P.V.

Element 1.5 – 2%
(beam/column/footing/slab)
cast from a single pour
Element cast from multiple 2 – 3%
pours
Same concrete grade in a 6 – 9%
structure
 Damaged concrete layer with lower pulse
velocity

Undamaged concrete layer with higher pulse velocity

Estimation of deterioration depth in concrete using U.P.V. measurements.

 Layer with lower pulse velocity

Layer with higher pulse velocity

Figure adapted from ACI 228.2R-7.

 Estimation of strength of in-situ concrete

• If calibration chart has been prepared by testing cores, then core diameter shall be at least 100 mm.
• Calibration chart can also be prepared by testing at least 10 sets of 3 cubes each in the laboratory.
Covering the strength range expected at site

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
At least 3 pulse readings shall be taken on each cube and each reading shall be within 5% of the mean.
Example strength vs. U.P.V. relationship for estimation of strength of in-situ concrete
 Pulse travelling through sound concrete (least transmission time)

Pulse travelling partly through inferior concrete

Diffracted path around the edge of a void or crack (maximum transmission time)

Detection of voids and discontinuities.

 Axis of crack must be perpendicular to concrete surface

Air-filled surface crack (crack should be empty of water

or dust or any debris)
 Surface hardness tests

Applications:

Checking uniformity of concrete quality

Approximate estimation of strength of in-situ concrete

Provides information about surface layer of concrete not thicker than about 50 mm

Not to be used for concrete of strength < 10 MPa or less than 7 days old
(N-type rebound hammer)

(P-type rebound hammer)

(M-type rebound hammer)

Top: N-type Rebound hammer and Bottom: Cut-away view.
N-type rebound hammer (at Roorkee).
M-type rebound hammer (at Roorkee).
Pendulum-type rebound hammer (at Roorkee).
 Mass rebound
measured by
Mass impact indicator

Use of a rebound hammer for surface hardness testing.

Pendulum-type rebound hammer used for testing low-strength concrete ( 5 – 25 MPa).
Use of a pendulum-type rebound hammer used for testing of a masonry column.
Manufacturer’s calibration chart for a N-type hammer.
 157.5 kN (Clamping Pressure = 7 MPa for 2.2 N-m impact hammer)

150 mm cube for N-type hammer

(for higher impact energy
hammer use 300 mm cube)
Platens of compression testing machine Rebound hammer test location. Location
to be impacted only ONCE
Grid lines spaced 25 mm c/c b/w as per
ASTM C805 and 20 mm as per IS code

Moist / wet cubes shall be kept in the lab. atmosphere to dry for 24 h prior to above test.

This test shall NOT be carried out on wet cubes (Crushing strength of a cube
tested wet is likely to be about 10% lower than that of a cube tested dry).

Moisture condition of the cube should correspond as closely as possible to moisture

condition of concrete surface to be tested at site.

Rebound hammer calibration as per IS: 13311 (Part 2): 1992

Effect of ‘restraining load’ or ‘clamping pressure’ on calibration specimen
Grid marking on a cube to be used for calibration
Cube restrained in the compression tesing machine with a clamping load of 157.5 kN
Rebound hammer readings being taken at the grid intersection points. Note that 15
0bservations will be taken.
Rebound hammer calibration using a standard cylinder (150 mm dia. x 300 mm height)
 ± 15% scatter should be expected

Scatter in laboratory calibration of a rebound hammer

(Seeing this scatter it is unlikely that site compressive strength predictions will be more accurate
than ± 25%)
N-type rebound hammer calibration chart developed in the Concrete Lab. of I.I.T.
Roorkee (Hammer orientation: horizontal).
N-type rebound hammer calibration chart with the help of cylinder tests (Hammer
orientation: horizontal).
Deviation of manufacturer’s calibration curve from that obtained by selected researchers.
ASTM C-805
 This distance shall be at least 20 mm
(50 mm as per ASTM C805)

Surface hardness testing using a N-type hammer (Hammer orientation: horizontal).

 ASTM C-805

Average = 45
ASTM C-805
 Factors influencing test results
• Cement type: Insignificant effect (between O.P.C. and P.P.C.)

• Smoothness of test surface: Troweled or metal-formed surfaces give 5 to 25% higher

readings than wood-formed surfaces

• Cement content: Changes in cement content have insignificant effect

• Coarse aggregate:

Moh number = 7

Moh number = 3

Comparison of hard and soft gravels (Hammer orientation: Vertical).

Rough exposed concrete surfaces shall be smoothened before testing
Grinder for smoothening of exposed concrete surfaces.
Surface preparation with a grinder prior to NDT.
Surface preparation with a grinder prior to NDT.
Surface hardness testing of prepared concrete surface.
Surface preparation with a grinder prior to NDT.
• Surface carbonation: Carbonation is the reaction between alkali in pore solution and CO2.
Hard carbonated surface skin of concrete is insignificant in about 3-month old concrete. Rate of
carbonation ≈ 1 mm per year. Carbonation will be negligible in concrete up to about 3 months
old.

Phenolphthalein

Concrete in this core is uncarbonated.

 Carbonated concrete

Concrete in this core is carbonated near the exposed surface.

 Carbonated concrete

Uncarbonated concrete

Site measurement of carbonation depth.

Use of drillling for estimation of depth of carbonated concrete.
 Factors influencing test results
• Moisture condition: Wet test surfaces can give up to 20% lower strengths when hammer
has been calibrated under dry conditions.

Hardness of concrete surface is lower when wet than when dry

Influence of surface moisture condition (Hammer orientattion: horizontal).
 Factors influencing test results

• Effect of curing and age of concrete: Curing and age of laboratory calibration specimens
should correspond as closely as possible to that of the in-situ concrete. Effect of age is
insignificant for concrete between 7 days and 3 months old.

• Stress-state in the tested element and ambient temperature: For normal working
conditions, both these factors have insignificant influence on test results
 Rate of gain of surface hardness of concrete is rapid up to age of 7 days
following which there is practically no gain in surface hardness.

For equal strength, higher rebound numbers

are obtained on 7-day old specimens than on
28-day old specimens

In the case of old concrete, strength calibration has to be done between rebound numbers taken on
the structure and compressive strength of cores taken from the structure.
Effect of age of test specimens on the relationship between rebound number and
compressive strength of test cubes.
Table: Rebound number criterion for concrete quality.
Typical surface hardness testc report
 Coring

Applications:

Where serviceability assessment is required: extract cores from points where likely
minimum strength and maximum stress coincide

Where check on specification compliance is required: cores shall be extracted horizontally

about 300 mm below top of lift
Core cutter with bits of different diameters.
 For serviceability assessment, take core
from top of beam at mid-span

Core extraction for check on specification compliance.

When drilling vertically downward in slabs, discard the top 20% length of core as being
unrepresentative concrete.
 Core diameter, length and numbers

Capping

L ≤ 2 x diameter

Diameter = 3 x MSA but not less than 2

MSA in any case

Recommended core dimensions as per IS:1199 - 1959.

 Core diameter, length and numbers

• Diameter: Should be at least 3 times nominal maximum aggregate size in concrete.

BS 1811 requires minimum dia. to be 100 mm though 150 mm is preferred. Australian
Standard recommends minimum core dia. = 75 mm.

• Length: length – diameter ratio should be in the range of 1 to 2.

• Number of cores: At least 3 cores shall be extracted from each test location.
Rebar locator.
Measurement of cover and rebar spacing in a column using a rebar locator.
Scanned image of column rebars obtained from the cover-meter.
Detection of transverse reinforcement in a column with the help of rebar locator.
Detection of transverse reinforcement in a beam with the help of rebar locator.
Core extraction from inbetween beam transverse reinforcement.
Extraction of core from a column. Note the marked position of column rebars.
Vertical coring.
Core extraction from a beam.
Core extraction from concrete lining of a canal.
Sealing material for holes left behind after coring.
 Measure distance of rebar CG to ‘top’
h/ 4 of core and rebar dia.

Take pair of diameter measurements

h/ 4
h
Take pair of diameter measurements
h/ 4

Take pair of diameter measurements

h/ 4

Measurement of core dimensions.

Glass plate not less than 6.5 mm thick
and projecting at least 25 mm beyond Thin capping made of stiff neat cement
the core. Plate shall be coated with a paste mixed 2 to 4 hours before
thin layer of oil. application.

Dressed core with l / d between 1 and 2

Capping of a core.
Extracted cores after dressing (and before capping).
Core testing in progress.
Strength of standard cylinder (h / d = 2) = Measured core strength x correction factor

Equivalent cube strength = Standard cylinder strength x 1.25

 Correction factor for reinforcement in a core
(bar is assumed perpendicular to the axis of the core)

h
Steel bar (dia. = φr ) cut along with the
core

l
Core (dia. = φc )

If rebar correction factor > 1.10, then the core shall be rejected
Equivalent cube comp. strength = Core comp. strength x ‘h/d’ factor x rebar factor x 1.25

Typical core test report.

A “more accurate” core test report.
Typical core test report with ‘rebar correction’.
Results of a multi-variate regression analysis.

fck : Cube compressive strength of concrete, MPa

UPV: Ultrasonic pulse velocity, km/s

RH: Rebound hammer reading

Estimation of concrete strength from a multi-variate regression analysis.
Estimation of concrete grade from predicted in-situ concrete strengths.
Reinforcement corrosion and durability of concrete.
 Iron ore Lowest energy state

High energy state

Pig iron (impure form of iron)
Iron oxide (rust)
(Lowest energy state at
room temp.)

Reduction of + O2
carbon content +
addition of alloying Still higher energy state
Steel (Thermodynamically unstable)
elements

All steel reinforcement will inevitably corrode!!!

(objective is to prevent onset of corrosion during design life of the structure)
Corrosion analyser (at Roorkee).
The analyser is ready to be used.
Corrosion analyser in operation
The corrosion analyser in use.
Connectivity with suspect rebar
 Concrete resistivity

Half-cell potential Corrosion current density

Output of the analyser

 Corrosion related metrics.
Test Range Observation
Half-cell potential < - 150 mV Indicative of active
(Silver – Silver Chloride corrosion in the tested
half-cell electrode element
Concrete resistivity > 12 kΩcm Corrosion improbable
8 – 12 kΩcm Corrosion is possible
< 8 kΩcm Corrosion is fairly certain
Corrosion probability < 1 μA/cm2 Low
(in terms of corrosion
current density)
1 – 3 μA/cm2 Mild

3 – 10 μA/cm2 Moderate

> 10 μA/cm2 High

Corrosion rate
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