Collecting Qualitative Data

Qualitative methodology vs method

Methodology Method Analysis
Ethnography Interviews

Action Research Participant observation

Summarising
Case Study Focus groups
Categorising
Grounded Theory Diaries
Structuring
+ Secondary data

+ +

+ +

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 Collecting and analysing qualitative data

• Negotiating access & Sampling

• Interviews & Focus Groups
• Participant Observation
• Diaries (Reflexive & Photographic)
• Secondary sources
• Qualitative data analysis

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 Strategies to gain access

Develop Factor
Be clear on
access ‘gaining
Use existing purpose & ‘Sell’ the Establish Always have
incrementally access’ into
contacts type of benefits credibility a ‘Plan B’
- develop your
access
new contacts timescales

Slide 4
MANG6129 Saunders et al (2007)
 Two tiers sampling and Samples… who, how
many?
Which Non-probability
Who?
organisation? sampling
• Particular • Quota sampling • Particular
context • Purposive individu
• Relating to sampling • How many
research • Snowball interviews
objective sampling
• Self-selection
sampling
• Convenience
sampling
• Theoretical
sampling

Saunders et al (2009) Slide 5

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 Quota sampling

The population is divided into specific groups, and quotas are

calculated for each group.

Then individuals are chosen in each group until the quota is

reached.

: Ensures that the various subgroups in a population are

represented on pertinent sample characteristics

: The results may be biased if the quotas are not calculated

correctly.

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 Purposive sampling
• The individuals who will best be able to
answer the research questions are
selected.
• Different strategies:
• - extreme individuals;
• - critical individuals;
• - typical individuals;
• - heterogeneous (maximum variation);
• - homogeneous.
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 Snowball sampling
• Each individual interviewed identifies
other individuals to contact.
• e.g. To gain access to SME Directors
Self-selected sampling
• Individuals come to the researcher
following an advertisement.
• e.g. - Research on medical condition
• - Research on sensitive issues
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 Convenience sampling
• The easiest individuals to reach are selected.
e.g. - Preliminary research to gain insight into
topic.
Theoretical sampling
• Target individuals who can specifically help to
‘fill in the gaps’
in theory development.
• Driven by theory development.
• Significant part of Grounded Theory sampling.

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 Collecting and analysing qualitative data

• Negotiating access & Sampling

• Interviews & Focus Groups
• Participant Observation
• Diaries (Reflexive & Photographic)
• Secondary sources
• Qualitative data analysis

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 Forms of interview

Slide 11
MANG6129 Saunders et al (2006)
 Structured Interviews

Gathering structured data:

•Wider reach to more
representative sample
•Higher response rate than
All questions (and most Researcher is postal questionnaires
Approaches - Face-to- •Researcher has ability to clarify
responses) are pre- administering a
face, telephone, webcam questions, not possible with
determined questionnaire
questionnaire
•No unexpected issues can be
explored

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 Semi-structured Interviews

Based on
list of Usually Flexibility to
List of
themes & more explore
No rigid list Approach - themes
issues emergent, particular
is adhered Face-to- may be
• Used to focus less pre- and/or
to face advised to
discussion defined, unexpected
interviewee
data issues

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 Unstructured Interviews

In-depth: research
may concentrate on
Based on ideas of Non-directive: key emergent
issues, but no list of researcher follows issues without
Mostly face-to-face
questions or issues and themes feeling need to
themes as they emerge cover pre-
determined list of
questions/themes

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 Focus Groups

Also called Unstructured

“Group &
Interview” Freeflowing

Research =
Facilitator
• Raise Multiple
questions, let views
the group
discuss

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 Delphi Technique

Useful where
Use to elicit a ‘power’ or
forecast from ‘politics’ may
experts be an issue…
or ‘groupthink’

Anchoring and
adjustment
Iterative cycles
heuristic
requesting
(Tversky and
data
Kahneman,
1974)

Tversky, A. and Kahneman, D. (1974), Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases, Science, New Series, Vol. 185, No. 4157, pp. 1124-1131.

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 Types of questions…

Who, why, where,

when, how and what

Closed vs. open

• Where do you live?
• What time is it?
• Are you happy with your
current supplier?
• Would you like to find a
better supplier?

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MANG6129 http://changingminds.org/techniques/questioning/open_closed_questions.htm
 Types of questions…

Who, why, where, when,

how and what

Closed vs. open

•What did you do on you holidays?
•How do you keep focused on your
work?
•Why is that so important to you?
•How have you been after your
operation?

Slide 18
MANG6129 http://changingminds.org/techniques/questioning/open_closed_questions.htm
 Types of questions…

Critical incident
technique
• situations are critical Loaded/biased
to professional
success. For service (very problematic
staff, for example, a to answer)
crucial situation may
consist of dealing with
difficult customers …

Probing… ‘can Active listening…

you tell me more ‘so what you’re
about that?’ saying is…’

Saunders et al (2009) Slide 19

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 Practical Issues
• Location

• Recording data
– Tape/video recording
• Gives accurate account
• Can concentrate on questioning & listening;
• BUT… intrusive?

– Note taking
• Difficulty of writing, listening, and questioning
• Taking notes after the interview may be dangerous, as relying
on “accurate” memory

• Transcription

• Feeding back results

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 Slide 21
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 Collecting and analysing qualitative data

• Negotiating access & Sampling

• Interviews & Focus Groups
• Participant Observation
• Diaries (Reflexive & Photographic)
• Secondary sources
• Qualitative data analysis

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 Participant Observation (PO)

Closely linked to • Also rooted in social anthropology

ethnography

Usually employed • Sometimes used in a quantitative manner

over an extended (structured observation) – less time
period of time consuming

Immersion in the • Represent phenomena through the

situation participant’s gaze

Taking account of
non-verbal aspects
of research context

Saunders et al (2009) Slide 23

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 Typology of participant observation researcher roles

Adapted from Saunders et al (2009) Slide 24

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 Types of observation

• Unstructured observation

• Structured observation
– ‘Time and motion’ studies
– Coding schedules
– Mintzberg (1973) study of managers

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 Work study observations
• Frank (1868-1924) & Lillian (1878 -
1972) Gilbreth

• Analysed work movements using

motion photography

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MANG6129 Source:http://www.telelavoro.rassegna.it/fad/socorg03/l2/Frank%20and%20Lillian%20Gilbreth.htm
 Work study observations
• Frank & Lillian Gilbreth

• Identified 18 basic movements (“therbligs”)

• Reduced brick laying movements from 18 to 5

Source: Boddy (2008) Slide 27

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 Advantages of Observation

Explains ‘what is going on

here?’

Heightens researcher
awareness

Useful in researcher’s own

organisation

Experience emotions ‘for

real’

Lots of useful data

Saunders et al (2009) Slide 28

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 Disadvantages of Observation
‘Observer effect’ –
Hawthorne studies
• where people in studies
change their behavior
because they are watched.

Access issues Very time consuming

Very demanding
(physically and Ethical dilemmas
emotionally)

Role conflict
Observer bias (going
(researcher vs
native)
colleague)
Saunders et al (2009) Slide 29
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 The covert role…
• Potential applications ‘Insider Research’ –
– Power/control systems Cohen & Taylor (1972)
teaching in a high-
– ‘Hidden’ (sub-)cultures security wing in Durham
Prison.
– Behaviour
– Corruption/illegal activities

• Advantages
– No problem of access
– Reactivity is not a problem

Cohen, S. & Taylor, L. (1972) Psychological Survival: the Experience of Long-

term Imprisonment, Middlesex: Penguin Slide 30
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 The covert role…

• Disadvantages

– Difficulty in taking notes

– Relies solely on observation
– Anxiety/risk
– Ethical problems (informed consent, deception,
violates principle of privacy, harms future research)

• Seven years undercover … PC Mark Kennedy

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-12152484

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 Collecting and analysing qualitative data

• Negotiating access & Sampling

• Interviews & Focus Groups
• Participant Observation
• Diaries (Reflexive & Photographic)
• Secondary sources
• Qualitative data analysis

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 Reflexive diaries
Daily record of actions, events,
thoughts

Quantitative (logs) or
qualitative (diaries)

Alternative to direct
observation

Both for respondents and

researcher
Issues of bias, motivation,
misreporting

Use as a basis for subsequent

in-depth interviews

Hussey & Hussey (1997, pp.153-155) Slide 33

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 Photo/video diaries

Photo journal: Harvest in Caracas

Changing the way Venezuelan city dwellers
think about food through the creation of organic
urban gardens to promote self-sufficiency

Photos: Emma Lynch via http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/picture_gallery/07/americas_harvest_in_caracas/html/1.stm. Slide 34

MANG6129
 Collecting and analysing qualitative data

• Negotiating access & Sampling

• Interviews & Focus Groups
• Participant Observation
• Diaries (Reflexive & Photographic)
• Secondary sources
• Qualitative data analysis

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 Secondary qualitative data
• Data has already been collected

– Large surveys

– Commercial databases

– Qualidata, UK Data Archive, Economic and Social

Data Service (www.qualidata.ac.uk)

– http://www.esds.ac.uk/qualidata/access/ukdata.asp

– http://library.soton.ac.uk/opstest

See Saunders et al (2009) Chapter 8, esp. pp.267-268.

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 Other secondary sources

Personal
documents,
letters, e-mails

Blogs / Social
networking / Historical diaries
Twitter... ???

Minutes of
Autobiographies
meetings

In-house
Legal records
publications

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 Secondary qualitative data

• Advantages

– Fewer resource requirements

– Allows for comparison over time &

geographical locations

– Less effort/cost than primary data

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 Other considerations

• mono method Vs. multiple methods

(single data collection and (more than one data collection and
analysis procedure) analysis procedure)

• Cross-sectional vs longitudinal studies

Slide 39
MANG6129 Saunders et al (2009, pp.151-156)
 Praktek In-depth Iiterview
• Mahasiswa sering terlambat/menunda
menyusun proposal penelitian di program Maksi
Issues/Problem • Mahasiswa seringkali bingung/galau bagaimana
menyusun proposal penelitian
• Keputusan mahasiswa dalam mendesain
penelitiannya tergantung pengaruh lingkungan
sosialnya

• Bagaimana praktek mahasiswa S2

Maksi merancang proposal
Research Question penelitiannya
• Bagaimana mahasiswa mepersepsikan
rancangan penelitian yang dapat
mempercepat proses kelulusan
• Pengantar dan persetujuan dgn responden
• Pertanyaan umum terkait dengan responden
Cara bertanya/data
• Bagaimana desain penelitian ;
collection • Bagaimana mhs mendesain penelitian yang
membuat cepat lulus
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