FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

BFC43103

5.0 Soil Improvement

Where a project encounters difficult foundation conditions, possible alternative solutions are:
• Avoid the particular site.
Relocate a planned highway or development site.
• Design the planned structure accordingly.
Some of the many possible approaches are to use a raft foundation supported by piles, design
a very stiff structure which is not damaged by settlement, or choose a very flexible
construction which accommodates differential movement or allows for compensation. The
solution will depend on the geotechnical performance criteria stipulated, which generally
relate to stability, deformation, and/or seepage.
• Remove and replace unsuitable soils.
Removing organic topsoil, which is soft, compressible, and volumetrically unstable, is a
standard precaution in road or foundation construction.
• Attempt to modify the existing ground.
Similar options must be considered in the case where there is a lack of good quality granular
materials needed for the construction of dams, embankments, roads, or foundations.
As more and more land becomes subject to urban or industrial development, good
construction sites and borrow areas are difficult to find and the soil improvement alternative
more frequently becomes the best option, technically and economically.
i. Mechanical modification.
Soil density is increased by the application of short term external mechanical forces, including compaction of surface
layers by static, vibratory, or impact rollers and plate vibrators; and deep compaction by heavy tamping at the
surface or vibration at depth.
ii. Hydraulic modification.
Free-pore water is forced out of the soil via drains or wells. In coarse-grained soils this is achieved by lowering the
groundwater level through pumping from boreholes or trenches; in fine-grained soils the long-term application of
external loads (preloading) or electrical forces (electrokinetic stabilization) is required. Traditional techniques have
benefited from the development of geosynthetics, as in the case of vertical drains.)
iii. Physical and chemical modification.
Stabilization by physically mixing additives with surface layers or columns of soil at depth is discussed under the
heading of modification by admixtures. Additives include natural soils, industrial by -products or waste materials, and
cementitious and other chemicals which react with each other and/or the ground. When additives are injected via
boreholes under pressure into voids within the ground or between it and a structure, the process is called grouting.
iv. Modification by inclusions and confinement.
Reinforcement by fibers strips, bars, meshes, and fabrics imparts tensile strength to a constructed soil mass. In situ
reinforcement is achieved by nails and anchors. Stable earth-retaining structures can be formed by confining soil
with concrete, steel, or fabric elements (including crib and bin walls and sandbags).
 Mechanical ground modification refers to soil densification by external forces. In most
practical applications mechanical modification is synonymous with compaction.
 Compaction means densification of an unsaturated soil by a reduction in the volume of
voids filled with air, while the volume of solids and the water content remain essentially
the same.
 Compaction implies that soil particles are packed closer together by the application of
sudden heavy loads or dynamic forces; crushing of some of the soil grains or rock
particles may assist this densification.
 The geotechnical engineer makes a clear distinction between the processes of compaction
and those of stabilization and consolidation.
 Stabilization may refer generally to an increase in strength or a reduction in the
deformation of a soil mass.
 Consolidation is a process where the volume of a soil mass is reduced by the expulsion of
water.
 It is usually achieved by the long-term application of static loads or electric forces to
saturated soils.
The major aims of compacting soil are to

1. Increase shear strength

2. Reduce compressibility
3. Reduce permeability
4. Reduce liquefaction potential
5. Control swelling and shrinking
6. Prolong durability
Laboratory Procedures
The aim of laboratory compaction tests is to simulate field compaction
procedures. Their results should aid in the optimization and control of
placement conditions. The most common type of test is the standard
compaction test, in which a steel rammer is dropped on loose soil
placed in a mold. It employs dynamic compaction as against kneading
or static compaction.

Field Shallow Surface Compaction

Compaction by surface equipment is achieved by static pressure
and/or dynamic pressure caused by impact or vibration.
a. Static Rollers
i. Smooth steel rollers and pneumatic-tired rollers.
Traditional steel rollers are relatively slow compared to newer types of equipment.
They exert high static pressures which makes them most suitable for granular soils.
On clays they may help in bridging uneven surfaces. However, if a soil is relatively
soft, they may have a plowing effect without causing significant compaction; in
addition, traction is likely to be poor.
Rubber-tired and pneumatic-tired rollers compact by the static weight of the ballast
and the kneading action of the tires. The compactive effort depends on
1. Gross weight
2. Wheel diameter
3. Wheel load
4. Tire width and size
5. Inflation pressure
ii. Sheepsfoot rollers.

Sheepsfoot and tamping or padfoot rollers are distinguished by “feet” protruding

from the cylindrical steel shell of the roller. The term “tamping,” or “padfoot,” roller
generally refers to equipment with relatively large “footprints” (illustrated as type 4
in Fig. 5.1). Examples of the different shapes of feet employed are shown in Fig. 5.2.
Generally, the wetter and softer the soil, the larger the contact area (footprint)
required for optimum compaction. Sheepsfoot rollers have proved more suitable for
cohesive soils than other rollers. They exert high pressures on the soil, first
compacting lower layers and then gradually working to the surface as the soil
underneath gains in strength. When the soil yields no further, the sheepsfoot roller is
said to “walkout” of the lift. Blending of the material is assisted by the sheepsfoot
action. Moisture control is made easier because of the pockmarked surface during
compaction. Steel rollers may be used to level off areas worked by sheepsfoot or
rubber-tired rollers.
iii. Grid rollers.

Grid rollers have drums covered or consisting of a heavy steel grid. This creates
high contact pressures while preventing excessive shear deformation responsible
for the plastic wave ahead of the roll. Grid rollers are suitable for compacting
weathered rock, such as sandstone, by breaking and rearranging gravel and cobble
size particles. Clayey soils, however, may clog the grid and make it ineffective. A
relatively high operating speed assists in the breakdown of material, while a lower
speed enhances the densification effect.
Densification of deep soil deposits is achieved by the following techniques:
 Precompression – A site is preloaded by means of a surcharge or by lowering the
groundwater level, causing the ground to consolidate. After restoring original
stress levels, future structures built o this site will settle less than those on the
untreated ground.
 Explosion – Explosives are detonated on the surface or, more likely, in an array of
boreholes, causing a loose soil structure to collapse which leads to a denser
arrangement of the particles. The final density may not be achieved immediately,
as the dissipation of excess pore pressures generated may take some time.
 Heavy damping – A large mass is dropped onto the ground surface, causing the
compaction and possibly long-term consolidation, thus the term “dynamic
consolidation.”
 Vibration – Densification is achieved by a vibrating probe or pile, possibly aided
by water jets or pressurized air and the addition of granular material, possibly with
added cementing agents
 Compaction grouting – “Zero-slump” mortar is injected into the ground under
high pressure, displacing and compacting the surrounding soil.
 Preloading or precompression increases the bearing capacity and reduces the
cornpressibility of weak ground by forcing loose cohesionless soils to densify or clayey,
silty soils to consolidate. It is achieved by placing a temporary surcharge on the ground
prior to the construction of the planned structure. It is a method of preempting
potentially damaging settlements on soft soil. A similar strategy is often employed in
the construction of liquid storage tanks, which are test-loaded with water before being
used to store dangerous chemicals.
 Vertical drains are installed in order to accelerate settlement and gain in strength of soft
cohesive soil. Without installing vertical drains, bearing failures may occur during
placement of the fill and settlement of clay soils may extend over many years.
 Because highly efficient drain installation methods have been developed, (preloading
combined with vertical drains has become an economic alternative to the installation of
deep foundations or other methods of ground improvement. Vertical drains are also
used to advantage in the construction of permanent fills, such as highway embankments
on soft ground. Basic design principles are the same, whether the surcharge is
permanent or only temporary.

 Vertial drains accelerate primary consolidation only, because significant water

movement is associated with it. Secondary consolidation causes only very small
amounts of water to drain from the soil; secondary settlement, therefore, is not speeded
up by vertical drains
Cylindrical Sand Drains

 In early applications of vertical drains, sand drains consisted simply of boreholes

filled with sand. The holes may have been formed by driving, jetting, or augering
and would typically have had diameters of 200 to 450 mm and would be spaced 1.5
to 6 m apart. To facilitate construction, minimize sand wastage, and ensure
continuity of the drain, the sand may be prepacked in a fabric sock, such as the
sandwick drain, which has a diameter of 65 mm [Dastidar et al. (1969)].

 A large-diameter sand, or rather gravel drain (or gravel column!), in a fine-grained

soil not only enables rapid consolidation of the surrounding material but may also
provide vertical compressive reinforcement and conceivably could transfer surface
loads to a bearing stratum at depth. The higher the reinforcing effect, however, the
lower will be the surcharge- induced consolidating stresses in the foundation soil.
Large-diameter gravel columns would therefore defeat the purpose of preloading
and are most appropriately discussed under pile foundations.
Geosynthetic Drains
 Most synthetic drains are of a strip (or band) shape,
although circular plastic drainage pipes wrapped in a
geotextile could also serve as vertical drains.

 The first strip drain was developed by the Swedish

Geotechnical Institute; see Kjellman (1948). It was made of
cardboard with internal ducts. This type was later
superseded by thin fluted PVD drains. Today, there are said
to be more than 50 different makes of drains on the market,
mostly of composite construction: a corrugated or studded
inner core wrapped in a filter fabric, normally a nonwoven
geotextile (Fig. 5.14). Similar to the original Kjellman wick
drain, strip drains are generally about 100 mm wide and 2
to 6 mm thick. Details of some of the strip drains available
are given in Table 5.4.
 Lime Stabilisation
As mentioned in Section 16.1, admixtures are occasionally used to stabilize soils in
the field—particularly fine-grained soils. The most common admixtures are lime,
cement, and lime–fly ash. The main purposes of stabilizing the soil are to (a) modify
the soil, (b) expedite construction, and (c) improve the strength and durability of the
soil.

 Lime Stabilization in the Field

Lime stabilization in the field can be done in three ways. They are
1. The in situ material or the borrowed material can be mixed with the proper
amount of lime at the site and then compacted after the addition of moisture.
2. The soil can be mixed with the proper amount of lime and water at a plant and
then hauled back to the site for compaction.
3. Lime slurry can be pressure injected into the soil to a depth of 4 to 5 m (12 to 16
ft). Figure 16.30 shows a vehicle used for pressure injection of lime slurry.
 Cement Stabilisation

Cement is being increasingly used as a stabilizing material for soil, particularly in

the construction of highways and earth dams.

As in the case of lime, cement helps decrease the liquid limit and increase the
plasticity index and workability of clayey soils. Cement stabilization is effective for
clayey soils when the liquid limit is less than 45 to 50 and the plasticity index is less
than about 25.

Like lime, cement helps increase the strength of soils, and strength increases with
curing time.
 Fly-Ash Stabilisation

Fly ash is a by-product of the pulverized coal combustion process usually associated
with electric power-generating plants. It is a fine-grained dust and is composed
primarily of silica, alumina, and various oxides and alkalies.
Fly ash is pozzolanic in nature and can react with hydrated lime to produce
cementitious products. For that reason, lime–fly-ash mixtures can be used to stabilize
highway bases and subbases.

Effective mixes can be prepared with 10 to 35% fly ash and 2 to 10% lime. Soil–lime–
fly-ash mixes are compacted under controlled conditions, with proper amounts of
moisture to obtain stabilized soil layers.
 Jet grouting is a soil stabilization process whereby cement slurry in injected into
soil at a high velocity to form a soil–concrete matrix.
 Three basic systems of jet grouting have been developed—single, double, and
triple rod systems. In all cases, hydraulic rotary drilling is used to reach the design
depth at which the soil has to be stabilized.
 Figure 16.41a shows the single rod system in which a cement slurry is injected at a
high velocity to form a soil–cement matrix. In the double rod system (Figure
16.41b), the cement slurry is injected at a high velocity sheathed in a cone of air at
an equally high velocity to erode and mix the soil well.
 The triple rod system (Figure 16.41c) uses high-pressure water shielded in a cone
of air to erode the soil. The void created in this process is then filled with a pre-
engineering cement slurry.