VARIABLES

• Definition: Variables are properties or characteristics

of people or things that vary in quality or magnitude
from person to person or object to object (Miller &
Nicholson, 1976)
– Demographic characteristics
– Personality traits
– Communication styles or competencies
– Constructs
• in order to be a variable, a variable must vary (e.g.,
not be a constant), that is, it must take on different
values, levels, intensities, or states
Definitions
• Variable: “any entity that can take on a variety of
different values” (Wrench et al, 2008, p. 104)
– gender
– self-esteem
– managerial style
• attributes, values, and levels are the variations in a
variable
– Attribute: political party:
– Value: Democrat, Republican, Independent, etc.
– Attribute: Self-esteem
– Level: High, Medium, Low
Types of Variables
 Qualitative
 Quantitative  Measured in categories
 Measured in  Gender, race, diagnosis
amounts
 Ht, Wt, Test score
Continuous:
 infinite values in between
Discrete:  GPA
 separate categories
 Letter grade
 Scales of Measurement
• Nominal Scale: Categories, labels, data carry no numerical value
• Ordinal Scale: Rank ordered data, but no information about distance
between ranks

• Interval Scale: Degree of distance between scores can be assessed

with standard sized intervals

• Ratio Scale: Same as interval scale with an absolute zero point.

 independent variable
• the variable that is manipulated either by the
researcher or by nature or circumstance
• independent variables are also called “stimulus”
“input” or “predictor” variables
• analogous to the “cause” in a cause-effect
relationship
 “operationalization” of the
independent variable
• Operationalization: • Operationalizations can
translating an abstract include:
concept into a tangible, – variations in stimulus
conditions (public schools
observable form in an versus home schooling)
experiment – variations in levels or
degrees (mild vs. moderate
vs. strong fear appeals)
– variations based on
standardized scales or
diagnostic instruments (low
vs. high self esteem scores)
– variations in “intact” or
“self-selected” groups
(smokers vs. non-smokers)
 varieties and types of variables
• Discrete variables – Dichotomous variables:
– Nominal variables: distinct, mutually • true/false, female/male,
exclusive categories democrat/republican
• religions; Christians, Muslims, – Ordered variables: mutually exclusive
Jews, etc. categories, but with an order,
• occupations; truck driver, sequence, or hierarchy
teacher, engineer • fall, winter, summer, spring
• marital status; single, married, • K-6, junior high, high school,
divorced college
– Concrete versus abstract variables
• concrete; relatively fixed,
unchanging
– biological sex
– ethnicity
• abstract; dynamic, transitory
– mood, emotion
– occupation
varieties and types of variables--
continued
• Continuous variables: include constant
increments or gradations, which can be
arithmetically compared and contrasted
– IQ scores
– self-esteem scores
– age
– heart rate, blood pressure
– number of gestures
 Unit of analysis
• Definition: The specific entity being • Ecological fallacy: drawing
examined conclusions about individuals
– individual; self esteem, fluency based on group data
– dyad: self disclosure, touch • committing a “sweeping
– group: roles, norms generalization” about participants
in a research study
– Organization: communication – individualism/collectivism
networks, upward-downward
influence
– Culture: individualism vs.
collectivism
 operationalization
• definition: the specific steps or procedures
required to translate an abstract concept into a
concrete, testable variable
– example: high versus low self-esteem (split-half or
top vs. bottom third?)
– example: on-line versus traditional classroom (how
much e-learning constitutes an “on-line” class?)
 examples of operationalizations
• credibility (high versus low) • “powerless” language style
• culture/ethnicity (self-report) • fear appeals (mild, moderate,
• type of speech therapy (in- strong)
clinic vs. at school, vs. at
home)
• compliance-gaining strategy
preferences (positive versus
negative, self-benefit versus
other benefit)
 dependent variable
• a variable that is observed or measured, and that
is influenced or changed by the independent
variable
• dependent variables are also known as “response”
or “output” or “criterion” variables
• analogous to the “effect” in a cause-effect
relationship
 confounding variable
• also known as extraneous variables or intervening or
mediating variables
• confounding variables “muddy the waters”
• alternate causal factors or contributory factors which
unintentionally influence the results of an experiment,
but aren’t the subject of the study
 moderating variable
moderating variables
• a 2nd or 3rd variable that can increase or decrease the
relationship between an independent and a dependent variable.
• for example, whether listeners are persuaded more by the quality
or quantity of arguments is moderated by their degree of
involvement in an issue.
moderating variable
Quiz!

A conditional cash transfer to families leads to payment

of school fees which increases children’s enrollment
school.

MEDIATO MODERAT
R OR
Quiz!

A school-based socioemotional learning program in a

conflict-affected countries improves children’s mental
health, but not for children who witnessed prolonged
and severe violence.

MEDIATO MODERAT
R OR
interchangeability of independent and
dependent variables
• The same concept or construct could serve as the
independent variable in one investigation, and the dependent
in another.
• example: “source credibility”
– as an independent variable; RQ: Does source credibility (low versus
high) have a significant effect on attitude change?
– As a dependent variable; RQ: Does the amount of evidence contained
in a speech affect listeners’ perceptions of the source’s credibility?
• example: “fetal alcohol syndrome” (FAS)
– As an independent variable: RQ: Does severity of FAS correlate
positively with language delay in infants?
– As a dependent variable: RQ: Does the amount of maternal alcohol
use correlate positively with the severity of FAS in infancy?
 Relationships among variables
• Differences
– Differences in kind, degree
• Relationships (correlations)
– Positive correlation
– Negative correlation
– No or neutral correlation