EE 102 Circuits 2

AC Power Analysis

By: Cesar G. Manalo, Jr.

 Learning Objectives
 Review DC power.
 Define instantaneous power, average power, real power, reactive
power, and apparent power.
 Determine the conditions for maximum power transfer to the
load.
 Define power factor and complex power.
 Solve problems pertaining to AC power analysis.
 Review of DC Power
 In DC circuits, the power absorbed or supplied by circuit element is
constant, for as long as the voltage across and current through that
element is constant.
THE SIGN OF POWER ON AN ELEMENT
 An element is absorbing
(receiving) power when current is
entering its positive terminal,
otherwise, it is supplying power.
 Power absorbed is considered
positive (+) while power supplied
is a negative (-) with respect to that
element.
 Review of DC Power

Equivalent representations of the circuit

that absorb power (positive power)
 Why analyze power?

• Power analysis is of paramount importance. Power

is the most important quantity in electric utilities,
electronic, and communication systems, because
such systems involve transmission of power from
one point to another. Also, every industrial and
household electrical device—every fan, motor,
lamp, pressing iron, TV, personal computer— has a
power rating that indicates how much power the
equipment requires; exceeding the power rating
can do permanent damage to an appliance.
 Instantaneous Power

where is the phase angle of v(t) and is

the phase angle of i(t).

 The expression p(t) is called the instantaneous power. It has a unit

of watts.
 Instantaneous Power

 By trigonometric identities, the above expression can be restated in

two forms,

2
 Instantaneous Power

Let, i  I m cos(t   )
+ L
-

 P(t) is called the instantaneous active power while Q(t) is called

the instantaneous reactive power.
 Instantaneous Power
p(t)

P(t)

Q(t) v(t)

i(t)
 Instantaneous Power
 P(t) and Q(t) are fluctuating
p(t) twice as fast as v(t) and i(t).
 Thus instantaneous power p(t)
P(t) has twice the frequency of v(t) or
i(t).

Q(t)
 Instantaneous Power
 P(t) is never negative though
p(t)
changing bet. 0 and a maximum.
 This indicates a non-constant energy
P(t) is supplied by the source to the load
at any given time.

Q(t)  Q(t) is positive half of the time and

negative during the other half.
 This indicates energy is supplied by
the source during half the time but
the same amount of energy returns
back to the source during the other
half.
 Average Active Power (P)
 Simply called the average power, is
p(t)
defined as the average value of
P(t).
P(t)

Q(t)

 When multiplied by one time

period of the source, yields the
total energy supplied by the source
or absorbed by the load in one
period.
 Average Active Power (P)
 Since
p(t)

P(t)
(W or watts)
Q(t)
 Illustrative Problem 1

Calculate the instantaneous power and average power absorbed by

the passive linear network if,
 Illustrative Problem 1 - Solution

Calculate the instantaneous power and average power absorbed by

the passive linear network if,
Illustrative Problem 2
Illustrative Problem 3
 Reactive Power (Q)
 Defined as the maximum (peak)
p(t)
value of Q(t).
P(t)

Q(t)

 The average value of reactive power

in one period is zero. That means the
total energy supplied by the source
in one period due to reactive power
is zero.
 Reactive Power (Q)
 Since
p(t)

P(t)
(VAR or volt-ampere reactive)
Q(t)
 Reactive Power (Q)
 Note that Q is the maximum of Q(t) while P is the average of P(t).
 The average of Q(t) over the period T of v(t) (or the period T/2 of p(t)) is
zero since the energy involved during the positive cycles of p(t), which
represent the energy supplied by the source, are equal to the energy involved
during the negative cycles, which denotes the energy returned to the source.
 An average of Q(t) over half its period (T/4), however, can be derived, using
the RL circuit model, as follows;
 Other Forms of Average Power

where V and I are understood to be

peak values.

Z
X
θv-θi=θz

R
Notes:
a) When computing for P, only magnitudes of V, I, or Z should be used.
b) P is always positive as is always between 0 and .
 Other Forms of Reactive Power

where V and I are understood to be

peak values.

Z
X
θv-θi=θz

R
Impedance triangle
Notes:
a) Q can become negative if , a condition when the current I leads voltage V.
 Illustrative Problem 4

ANSWER:

P1 = -367.8 W
P2 = 160 W
P3 = 0 W
P4 = 0 W
P5 = 207.8 W
S.W.
 Maximum Average Power Transfer
 In DC circuits, maximum power is transferred to the load if the
load resistance equals the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance of the
linear network where the load is attached.

Original circuit Thevenin’s equivalent

 In AC circuit, maximum power is transferred to load ZL if,

Z L  Z Th
*
where Z*Th is called the complex conjugate of ZTh.
 Maximum Average Power Transfer
 If,
Z Th  RTh  jX Th
= Z*Th
Z *
 RTh  jX Th
Th
= RTh - jXTh

 The maximum power transferred to the load ZL is:

VTh VTh 1 VTh
I  
Z Th  Z Th RTh  jX Th  RTh  jX Th 2 RTh
*

2
1 2 1  1 VTh  1 VTh2
PL max  I RTh    RTh  (|VTh| is maximum value)
2 2  2 RTh  8 RTh

1 VTh2
PL max  (|VTh| is RMS value)
4 RTh
 Maximum Average Power Transfer
 If load is purely resistive

RL  RTh2  X Th2 | ZTh | RL

Illustrative Problem 5
 Illustrative Problem 5-Solution

Voc

 8  j4 
VTh  Voc  12   5  37.48  51.34o V
 8  j 4  5  j10 
(8  j 4  j10)(5)
Z Th  Z in   3.415  j 0.7317
8  j 4  j10  5
 Illustrative Problem 5-Solution

IL

Z L  Z Th
*
 3.415  j 0.7317

VTh VTh 37.48  51.34o

IL     5.4876 A
Z Th  Z L 2 RTh 2(3.415)

PL  12 I L2 RL  0.5(5.4876) 2 (3.415)  51.42 W

 Apparent Power (S)
 Defined as,
(VA or volt-ampere)

S
Q Power triangle
θv-θi=θz

P
Note: while Q can become negative, S
will always be positive.
 Power Factor (PF) and Power Factor Angle
 Defined as,
S
Q
θv-θi=θz

Notes:
a) If , the PF is said to be lagging, a condition when circuit is
inductive in nature (I lagging V)
b) If , the PF is said to be leading, a condition when circuit is
capacitive in nature (I leading V)
c) If , the PF = 1, unity power factor condition that occurs when
circuit is resistive in nature (I in-phase with V)
 The inverse cosine of the power factor is called the power factor angle.
 Complex Power (S)
 Given a load Z with its voltage V and current I expressed in
phasor, the complex power of that load is defined as,

S  12 VI*  Vrms I*rms (volt-amperes or VA)

where I* is the complex conjugate of the

phasor I.
S  12 (| V |  v )(| I |    i ) 12 | V || I | ( v   i )

Important Note:
Complex power is not the same as apparent power. The latter is the product of
the magnitude of the two phasors while the former is the product of the
phasor themselves with the current expressed as the complex conjugate of I.
Hence, the complex power is also a phasor. Note, however, that the
magnitude of the complex power is equal to the apparent power.
 Complex Power (S)
 In rectangular form,

S 12 | V || I | cos( v   i )  j 12 | V || I | sin( v   i )

S  P  jQ

1
S  | I |2 Z
2
1 | V |2
S
2 Z*
 Complex Power (S)
ADVANTAGE OF USING COMPLEX POWER:
 When complex power = P + jQis expressed in rectangular form,
values of P and Q can easily be found.
 When complex power is expressed in polar form, the magnitude
yields the apparent power and the angle yields the power factor
angle.

 When S lies in the first

quadrant, the load is inductive
and lagging PF.
 When S lies in the fourth
quadrant, the load is capacitive
and leading PF.
 The angle made by S with P
yields the power factor angle.
 Illustrative Problem 6

Solution:
Using RMS values, the applied voltage and resulting current to
the load is,
320
V  100 o  226.27100 o (RMS VALUE)
2
V 226.27100 o
I   3.1466.31 (RMS VALUE)
Z 60  j 40
 Illustrative Problem 6

S  Vrms I rms  226.27(3.14)  710 VA

PF  cos( v   i )  cos(100  66.31)  0.8321 lagging

lagging because, the resulting current I is lagging the applied
voltage.

Using complex power,

1 | V |2 1 320 2
S 
2 Z *
2 60  j 40
S  71033.69 o VA  590.76  j 393.84 VA
S  710 VA
P  590.76 W PF  cos(33.69o )  0.8321 lagging
Q  393.84 VAR
 Illustrative Problem 7

Calculate the power factor of the entire circuit as seen by the

source. What is the average and reactive power supplied by the
source?
 Illustrative Problem 7-Solution

( j 4)(8  j 6)
Z eq   10  12.720.62o 
8  j6  j 4

| Vrms |2 1652 o
S   2006  j 754.94  2143.720.62 VA
Z *
12.7  20.62 o

P  2006 W Q  754.94 VAR

PF  cos( 20.62o )  0.936 lagging

Illustrative Problem 8
Illustrative Problem 9
 Summary of Formulas (Using RMS Values)

Average
Power or Real
Power (P)

Reactive
Power (Q)
Apparent
Apparent
Power
Power (S)
(S)
Power Factor
Power
(PF) Factor
(PF)
Complex
Power (S)
Complex
Power (S) | V || I | ( v  i ) | V || I |  z
Power Factor
Angle
Power(θ)
Factor
Angle (θ)
 Conservation of AC Power
 The complex, real, and reactive powers of the sources equal the
respective sums of the complex, real, and reactive powers of the
individual loads.

S  S1  S 2 S  S1  S 2
VI *  VI1*  VI 2* VI *  V1 I * V2 I *
Illustrative Problem 10

IT
I1 I2
Illustrative Problem 11

2 kw 4 kw
0.75 pf lead 0.95 pf lag
 Illustrative Problem 11-Solution

Solution:
The power triangle of the 2 loads are;

leading lagging
S2
P1= 2 kW θ2 Q2
θ1 P2 = 4 kW
2 kw 4 kw
Q1 0.75 pf lead 0.95 pf
S1 lag

1  cos 1 (0.75)  41.41o  2  cos 1 (0.95)  18.19 o

| S1 | 2kW / cos(41.41)  2.67 kVA | S 2 | 4kW / cos(18.19)  4.21 kVA

S1  2.67  41.41 kVA S2  4.2118.19 kVA

 Illustrative Problem 11-Solution

Solution:
ST  S1  S2  2.67  41.41  4.2118.19
ST  6.02  4.3o
ST  6  j0.45 kVA

PF  cos( 4.3 )  0.997 leading

o (because S T is in the 4 th
quadrant or
QT is negative)
 Power Factor Correction
 Some call it Power Factor Improvement.
 The technique of increasing the power
factor (PF) of the source without altering
the voltage or current to the original load.
 Results in a lower over-all current
supplied by the source without affecting
the required voltage and current of the
load or the average and reactive power
requirements of the load.
 Beneficial to the source provider (and
user of the source) in that it reduces the
power losses in a circuit.
 Implemented by installing an component,
(usually a capacitor if load is inductive),
in parallel to the load.
Power Factor Correction

Pole-mounted capacitors
 Illustrative Problem 12
 In the Figure below, find;
a) The magnitude of the RMS current I, without the capacitor C.
b) The complex power, real power, reactive power supplied by
the source and the power factor of the circuit, without the
capacitor C.
c) Repeat a) and b) if a capacitor with C = 100 uF is connected
across Z.
d) Draw the phasor diagram of current and voltage before and
after the capacitor is installed.
I
 Illustrative Problem 13
Repeat Illustrative Problem 12 and find the value of the capacitor
needed to bring the pf to unity (pf = 1.0).
 Illustrative Problem 14

Find the value of parallel capacitance needed to correct a load of 140

kVAR at 0.85 lagging pf to 0.90 lagging pf. Assume that the load is
supplied by a 110-V (RMS), 60 Hz line.
 Illustrative Problem 15
A factory owner operates a 1000-Vrms, 60 Hz, 100-KVA, 0.75 pf lagging
equipment connected to a voltage source via a power line that has a
resistance of 10 Ω. If the equipment is operating at full-load, find:
a) The power losses on the line.
b) The cost of power loss in 1 month if equipment is operating 12 hrs. per
day and electricity cost P10.00 per kWHr.
c) If a capacitor is installed in parallel to the equipment to improve the pf to
0.9 lagging, how much savings can the owner realize in a month?
(Assume voltage at the equipment remains the same). What is the
required capacitance of the capacitor?
10 Ω

+
1000-V
VT 100 KVA
0.75 pf lagging
-
 Assignment
In the Figure below C = 200 uF. Find;
a) The magnitude of the RMS current I, Ic, and IL.
b) The power factor, average power, reactive power, and apparent
power supplied by the source.
c) The power factor, average power, reactive power, and apparent
power absorbed by the capacitor.
d) The power factor, average power, reactive power, and apparent
power absorbed by the load.
e) Is the circuit leading, lagging, or in-phase?
IL
I
Ic
Question
and
Answer
Thank You