Theories of Human

Development
Ryan M. Denney, Ph.D.
The University of Southern Mississippi
Basic Overview
 People develop at different rates
 Development is relatively orderly (emphasis
on “relatively”)
 Development occurs gradually
 People have strengths & weaknesses in
different areas of development (e.g.,
cognitive vs. physical vs. social)
 Human development is an ineffable
combination of both nature & nurture
Three Domains
 Biological
 Growth and change to a person’s body
 Genetic, health, nutritional factors
 Cognitive
 Mental processes, knowledge acquisition
 Psychosocial
 Emotions, temperament, social skills,
psychosocial interactions
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Piagetian Perspective on Cognitive
Development

New
experiences
Assimilation

Observations Accommodation
of reality
Disequilibrium

Knowledge/
Schemas Equilibrium
Stages of Cognitive Development:
Sensorimotor
 Infancy – 2 years of age
 Experience environment through the
senses
 Develop object permanence
 Goal directed actions
 Move from physical exploration of the world
to symbolic exploration (e.g., pointing,
words)
7
Stages of Cognitive Development:
Preoperational
 Ages 2 – 7
 Operations = mental symbols or cognitive manipulations
(PRE-operational)
 Solve problems through trial and error
 Developmental Limitations:
 Lack of reversible thinking
 Egocentric thinking
 No conservation of matter (next slide)
 Centration (narrow focus on one characteristic-excluding
others)
 Animism
 Transductive reasoning (transformation of environmental
stimuli into neurochemical info: if A causes B today, then
A will cause B tomorrow.
 Appearance as reality (assuming an object is what it
appears to be; e.g., smile=happy or plastic pizza
9
Stages of Cognitive Development:
Concrete Operational
 Ages 7-11
 Mental operations applied to concrete objects/
events
 Developmental Accomplishments:
 Mastery of conservation of matter
 Classification
 Seriation (ordering things)
 Reversibility
 Decentration (moves beyond focusing on one salient
aspect of an object or situation; e.g., length vs. number of
objects)
Stages of Cognitive Development:
Formal Operations
 Emerges Ages 11-15;
 Abstract thought
 Systematic problem-solving
 Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
 Inductive reasoning
 Symbolic thought: concrete objects can
symbolize abstract concepts. Like what?
 Algebra and geometry, morality/ethics, literature,
future possibilities
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective
Culture
 Determines what & how child will learn
about the world
 Development occurs between people (in
relationships and relational systems)
 Social interaction  understanding/
knowledge acquisition
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective
Language
 Tool for organizing thinking
 3 kinds of speech:
 External/ social speech (you, we, they)
 Egocentric speech (I, me)
 Inner/ private speech
 Leads to self-regulation
 Chomsky's language acquisition device
Transmission of Cultural Norms
 Modeling (driving)
 Direct instruction
 Collaboration
 Assisted learning
 Scaffolding
 Independent learning
Zone of Proximal Development
 Discrepancy between
success experienced
independently and
success with
assistance
 Scaffolding: gauging/
altering the amount of
assistance given to
match the learner’s
needs.
 Examples?
ZPD cont’d
 Not static
 Varies for each child and for each different area of
development (bio, cog, and social)
 Implications:
 How education is structured
 How assistance is provided
 How children are assessed
 What is considered developmentally appropriate
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
Psychosocial Development
(Erikson)
 Trust vs. Mistrust
 Birth-1 year
 Task: Form secure relationship with caregiver.
 Trust: optimism, warmth
 Mistrust: sense of deprivation
 Attentive caregiver vs. Harsh handling or
treatment
Psychosocial Development
(Erikson)
 Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
 1-3 years
 Task: Form a healthy sense of independence
 Autonomy: self-control, adequacy
 Shame: sense of inner failure or inherent
badness
 reasonable free choice permitted vs. Harsh
punishment, restrained too much
Psychosocial Development
(Erikson)
 Initiative vs. Guilt
 3-6 years (preschool)
 Task: Navigation of the social world
 Initiative: ability to direct own actions
 Guilt: anxiety about being bad
 Support for new ideas, sense of responsibility vs.
Too much self control demanded
Psychosocial Development
(Erikson)
 Industry vs. Inferiority
 6-11 (elementary)
 Task: Mastery of knowledge acquisition and
intellectual skills
 Industry: skill competence
 Inferiority: sense of inadequacy (comparative
shame)
 Sense of accomplishment vs. Feelings of
incompetence
Psychosocial Development
(Erikson)
 Identity vs. Identity Confusion
 Adolescence
 Task: Identity formation (Who am I? What is my
place in society? What are my values?)
 Identity: Image of self as unique and acceptable
 Identity Confusion: doubt about identity or
acceptability of the self
 Exploration of several roles (selves), self-chosen
path vs. Forced identity from parents
Psychosocial Development
(Erikson)
 Intimacy vs. Isolation
 Early Adulthood
 Task: Forming intimate relationships (NOT
necessarily sexual)
 Intimacy: emotionally close relationships formed
 Isolation: emotional and psychological distance
from others
 Intimate, close relationships; positive relational
experiences vs. Relational disappointments, fear
Psychosocial Development
(Erikson)
 Generativity vs. Stagnation
 Middle Adulthood
 Task: Contribute to the lives of others, invest in
younger generations
 Generativity: concern for future generations
 Stagnation: self-concern (inability to overcome
egocentrism)
 Productive work, successful child-rearing, caring
for others vs. Absence of meaningful
accomplishments or contributions
Psychosocial Development
(Erikson)
 Integrity vs. Despair
 Late Adulthood
 Task: Sense that life was worth living
 Integrity: satisfaction with own life cycle
 Despair: nonacceptance of life cycle
 Positive resolution of earlier stages, purpose-
filled life vs. Negative experiences in earlier
stages, purposeless life, unressolved regret
FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC
APPROACH
The Zeitgeist: Victorian Era marked by sexual
repression, rationality, and the virtues of
ethical conduct
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
 Explains personality,
motivation, and
psychological disorders by
focusing on:
 the influence of early
childhood experiences
 unconscious motives and
conflicts
 methods people use to
cope with their sexual
(libidinal) and aggressive
impulses
 Freud’s unconscious
determinism

Sigmond Freud
 The Psychoanalytic Perspective
 Personality Structure Ego Conscious mind
 Id Unconscious mind
 Operates on the
pleasure principle Superego
 Demands immediate
Id
gratification
 Superego
 Internalized ideals
about appropriate bx
 Develops from early
experiences
 Influenced by
guilt/shame
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
 Personality Structure
 Ego Ego Conscious mind
 Largely conscious
Unconscious min
 Mediates demands of id
and superego Superego

 Reality principle Id
 Satisfy id in
realistic/moral ways
that bring pleasure
and not pain
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
 Defense Mechanisms
 Unconscious reactions that protect the self from
uncomfortable, intrapsychic anxiety
 Distortions of reality
 Repression-pushing from awareness
 Projection-own thoughts/feelings attributed to another
person
 Displacement-directing negative emotions at nonthreatening
target
 Reaction formation-acting the opposite of how one feels
 Regression-reverting to a previous developmental phase
 Sublimation-channeling impulses into acceptable actions
 Identification-taking on others’ characteristics
 Rationalization-using reason to form anxiety reducing
excuses
 Intellectualization—Handling negative emotions/anxiety
indirectly through overanalyzing and using abstract thought
Stages of Psychosexual Development
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
Stage Focus
Oral Pleasure centers on the mouth--
(0-18 months) sucking, biting, chewing
Anal Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder
(18-36 months) elimination; coping with demands for
control
Phallic Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with
(3-6 years) incestuous sexual feelings
Latency Dormant sexual feelings
(6 to puberty)
Genital Maturation of sexual interests
(puberty on)
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
Psychosexual Stages of Development
 Oral Stage
 Birth – 1 year
 Gratification through the mouth: chewing, biting, sucking
 Important experience: Feeding
 Needs not met  obsessive habits (smoking, nail-biting,
thumb-sucking, etc)
 Anal Stage
 1 to 3 years
 Gratification through the anus; exercise of anal functions
relieves tension
 Important experience: Potty training
 Needs not met  excessively clean and orderly OR
messy/disorderly
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
Psychosexual Stages of Development
 Phallic Stage
 3 to 6 years
 Gratification through the genitals
 Important Experience: Sexual desire for opposite
sex parent and Identification with same sex
parent
 Oedipal conflict: Boy likes mom + fears dad = identify
w/ dad
 Girl attached to dad, envies penis (electra complex),
identifies with mom to appeal to dad/a male in future
 Development of gender identity and role expectations
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
Psychosexual Stages of Development
 Latency Stage
 6 years to puberty
 Sexual instincts lie repressed/dormant
 Important experience: Social/intellectual
development
 Genital Stage
 Post-puberty
 Sexual drive sought to be gratified outside family
 Important experience: Mature love/Intimacy and
sexual experiences
 MORAL DEVELOPMENT

“What is moral is what you feel good after, and what

is immoral is what you feel bad after.”
~Ernest Hemmingway
The Philosophy of Morality
 What is morality?
 How do we know that something is morally “wrong?”
 Where does it come from?
 Who sets its standards?
 How is it different from
 ethics?

 religious beliefs?

 Cultural values?

 Good and evil?

 How is it similar?
 Can moral standards change over time? Does this
mean “right and wrong” can change?
Piaget’s Theory of
Moral Development

 Understanding comes from exposure to the

environment and experiences
 Developed the theory through observation
& interview
 how children understand rules to games
 understanding of lying, stealing, etc.
 Two stage theory
Heteromony (5-10 years)
 Strict adherence to rules and duties
 Rules are fixed & handed down by authority
 Obedience to authority
 Results from:
 Concrete thought processes
 Moral realism - rules are permanent and
unchangeable
 Immanent justice - punishment automatically
happens
 Lack of social power
Autonomy (10 +)
 Perspective-taking
 Ability to consider rules critically
 Flexibility
 Reciprocity
 Golden Rule
 Adolescence brings an explosion of
autonomous behavior/thinking, thus moral
development is strongly impacted
Kohlberg’s Theory of
Moral Development

 Reasoning valued over conclusions

 Morality is based on one’s understanding of
basic principles
 justice, rights, equality, and human welfare
 Six stages, 3 levels
 fundamental shift in thinking from external to
internal
 The Heinz Dilemma
Heinz’s wife is dying of a special kind of
cancer. The drug that can save her is only
sold in one place. The drug is expensive to
make ($200 per bottle), and the druggist is
selling the drug for much more ($2,000 per
bottle). Heinz borrowed as much money as
he could and only has $1,000. Heinz
pleaded, but the druggist would not reduce
the price. Heinz broke into the drug store and
stole the medicine for his wife.
See “Stages of
Moral Development” Chart