Scientific Method

1. State the problem clearly.

2. Gather information.
3. Form a _______________.
4. Test the hypothesis.
5. Evaluate the data to form a conclusion.
If the conclusion is valid, then it
becomes a theory. If the theory is
found to be true over along period of
time (usually 20+ years) with no
counter examples, it may be
considered a law.
6. Share the results.
 Why Aren’t the Philosophers
Considered Scientists

Philosophers: Scientists:
 Observe nature.  Observe nature.
 Explain the behavior  Explain the behavior of
of nature. nature.
 Communicate and  Communicate and
debate ideas with debate ideas with other
other philosophers. scientists.
 Truth is revealed  Truth is revealed
through logic and through
debate. experimentation.
2
 Observation
 Acquiring information or data

 Some observations are simple

descriptions
• “The soda pop is a liquid with a brown
color and a sweet taste. Bubbles are seen
floating up through it.”

 Some observations compare a

characteristic.
• “A 240-mL serving of soda pop contains
27 g of sugar.”

3
 Hypothesis

 An explanation of your observations.

• “The sweet taste of soda pop is due to the
presence of sugar.”
 Experiments

 Tests a hypotheses and ultimately retested to

test laws, or theories.

 Are all soda pop sweet? Is sweet the same

to all people, how do we differentiate?
 Laws
 Summary of all past observations into one
general statement.
• Law of Conservation of Mass— “In a chemical
reaction matter is neither created nor destroyed.”
• Speed of Light, E = mc2, Dalton’s Gas Law, etc…

 Allows you to predict future observations.

• So you can test the law with experiments.

6
Theories
 An explanation of why nature behaves
that way.
• Newton’s Gravitational Theory
• Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
• Einstein's Theory of Relativity
 Can be used to predict future
observations.
• So they can be tested by experiments.
• Fewer of these than Laws
8
What’s the Difference Between a
Law and a Theory?

 Laws answer the question “What” will

happen, often expressed in
mathematical equations. Very specific,
many of these.
 Theories are general and answer the
question “Why” does something
happen. Very broad, so much of these
than Laws.
10
Types of Observations and
Measurements
 We make QUALITATIVE
observations of reactions —
changes in color and physical state.
 We also make QUANTITATIVE
MEASUREMENTS, which involve
numbers.
• Use SI units — based on the
metric system
SI measurement
 Le Système international d'unités
 The only countries that have not
officially adopted SI are Liberia (in
western Africa) and Myanmar
(a.k.a. Burma, in SE Asia), but
now these are reportedly using Information from U.S. Metric
metric regularly Association
 Metrication is a process that does
not happen all at once, but is
rather a process that happens over
time.
 Among countries with non-metric
usage, the U.S. is the only country
significantly holding out. The U.S.
officially adopted SI in 1866.
 Chemistry In Action
On 9/23/99, $125,000,000 Mars Climate Orbiter entered Mars’
atmosphere 100 km lower than planned and was destroyed by
heat.

1 lb = 1 N
1 lb = 4.45 N

“This is going to be the

cautionary tale that will be
embedded into introduction
to the metric system in
elementary school, high
school, and college science
courses till the end of time.”
Stating a Measurement

In every measurement there is a

 Number followed by a
 Unit from a measuring device
The number should also be as precise as the

measurement!
 Standards of Measurement

When we measure, we use a measuring

tool to compare some dimension of an
For example, at one time the
object to a standard. standard for length was the
king’s foot. What are some
problems with this standard?
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Use SI units — based on the metric system
Length Meter, m
Mass Kilogram, kg
Volume Liter, L
Time Seconds, s
Temperature Celsius degrees, ˚C
kelvins, K
 Mass vs. Weight
 Mass: Amount of
Matter (grams,
Can you hear
measured with a me now?

BALANCE)
 Weight: Force
exerted by the
mass, only
present with
gravity (pounds,
measured with a
SCALE)
Some Tools for Measurement

Which tool (s)

would you use to
measure:
A. temperature
B. volume
C. time
D. weight
Learning Check

Match L) length M) mass V) volume

M A.
____ A bag of tomatoes is 4.6 kg.

L B.
____ A person is 2.0 m tall.

M C.
____ A medication contains 0.50 g Aspirin.

V D.
____ A bottle contains 1.5 L of water.
 Learning Check

What are some U.S. units that are used

to measure each of the following?
A. length
B. volume
C. weight
D. temperature
 Metric Prefixes
 Kilo- means 1000 of that unit
• 1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m)
 Centi- means 1/100 of that unit
• 1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters (cm)
• 1 dollar = 100 cents
 Milli- means 1/1000 of that unit
• 1 Liter (L) = 1000 milliliters (mL)
Metric Prefixes
Metric Prefixes
 Learning Check

1. 1000 m = 1 ___ a) mm b) km c) dm

2. 0.001 g = 1 ___ a) mg b) kg c) dg

3. 0.1 L = 1 ___ a) mL b) cL c) dL

4. 0.01 m = 1 ___ a) mm b) cm c) dm
 Length
 Length is the
distance between
two points.
 The SI base unit
for length is the
meter.
 We use rulers or
meter sticks to
find the length of
objects.
copyright cmassengale
 Units of Length
 ? kilometer (km) = 500 meters (m)
 2.5 meter (m) = ? centimeters (cm)
 1 centimeter (cm) = ? millimeter (mm)
 1 nanometer (nm) = 1.0 x 10-9 meter

O—H distance =
9.4 x 10-11 m
9.4 x 10-9 cm
0.094 nm
 Mass
 Mass is the amount of matter that
makes up an object.
 The SI unit for mass is the gram.
 A paper clip has a mass of about one
gram.
 The mass of an object will not change
unless we add or subtract matter
from it.

copyright cmassengale
 Measuring Mass
 We will use a triple beam balance scale to
measure mass.
 Gravity pulls equally on both sides of a
balance scale, so you will get the same
mass no matter what planet you are on.

copyright cmassengale
 Weight
 Weight is a measure of the force of
gravity on an object.
 Your weight can change depending on
the force of gravity. The gravity will
change depending on the planet you are
on.
 The SI unit for weight is the Newton
(N).
 The English unit for weight is the pound.

copyright cmassengale
 Gravity
 Gravity is the force of attraction
between any two objects with mass.
 The force depends on two things:
 more distance = less gravity = less
weight
 less distance = more gravity = more
weight
 more mass = more gravity = more weight
 less mass = less gravity = less weight
copyright cmassengale
 Weight and Mass
Jill Earth Moon Jupiter On orbit
1 gravity 1/6th 2.5 0 gravity
gravity gravities
mass 30kg 30kg 30kg 30kg
weight 300N 50N 750N 0 Newtons

Notice that Jill’s mass never changes.

Her mother will not allow us to take
parts off her, or add parts to her, so
her mass stays the same. Jill is 30kg of
little girl no matter where she goes!
copyright cmassengale
 Volume
 Volume is the amount
of space contained in
an object.
 We can find the
volume of box shapes
by the formula Volume
= length x width x
height
 In this case the units
would be cubic
centimeters (cm3).
 So a box 2 cm x 3 cm
x 5cm would have a V = L x W x H
volume of 30copyright
cmcmassengale
3
 Base Units
 The base unit
for volume is
the Liter.
 We measure
volume with a
graduated
cylinder.

copyright cmassengale
 Graduated Cylinders
 Liquids form curved,
upper surfaces when
poured into
graduated cylinders
 To correctly read
the volume, read
the bottom of the
curve called the
meniscus
copyright cmassengale
 Liquid Volume
 When the metric system was
created, they decided that 1 cm3
of water would equal 1 milliliter of
water and the 1 mL of water will
have a mass of one gram.
 1cm3 water =1 ml of water = 1 gram

copyright cmassengale
 Water Displacement
 We can use water
displacement to find
the volume of objects
that are not boxed
shaped.
 We can put water in a
graduated cylinder. If
a rock causes the level
to rise from 7 to 9 ml,
the the rock must have
a volume of 2-mL.
copyright cmassengale
 Water Mass and Volume
 1 cm3 water = 1 mL of water = 1
gram
 So what would be the mass of 50 mL of
water be?
 50 grams
 So what would be the mass of 1 liter of
water be?
 1 L = 1000 mL so its mass would be
1000 grams or a kilogram.
copyright cmassengale
Learning Check
Select the unit you would use to measure
1. Your height
a) millimeters b) meters c) kilometers
2. Your mass
a) milligrams b) grams c) kilograms
3. The distance between two cities
a) millimetersb) meters c) kilometers
4. The width of an artery
a) millimetersb) meters c) kilometers
What is Scientific Notation?

 Scientific notation is a way of

expressing really big numbers
or really small numbers.
 For very large and very small
numbers, scientific notation is
more concise.
Scientific notation consists of two
parts:

A number between 1 and 10

A power of 10

Nx 10 x
 Writing a Number in Scientific Notation,
Continued

12340
1. Locate the decimal point.
12340.
2. Move the decimal point to obtain a number between 1 and 10.
1.234
3. Multiply the new number by 10n .
• Where n is the number of places you moved the decimal
point.
1.234 x 104
4. If you moved the decimal point to the left, then n is +; if you
moved it to the right, then n is − .
1.234 x 104
Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", 42
Chapter 2
Writing a Number in Scientific Notation,
Continued

0.00012340
1. Locate the decimal point.
0.00012340
2. Move the decimal point to obtain a number between 1 and 10.
1.2340
3. Multiply the new number by 10n .
• Where n is the number of places you moved the decimal
point.
1.2340 x 104
4. If you moved the decimal point to the left, then n is +; if you
moved it to the right, then n is − .
1.2340 x 10-4
Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", 43
Chapter 2
Writing a Number in Standard Form
1.234 x 10-6
 Since exponent is -6, make the number
smaller by moving the decimal point to
the left 6 places.
• When you run out of digits to move around,
add zeros.
• Add a zero in front of the decimal point for
decimal numbers.
000 001.234
0.000 001 234
Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", 44
Chapter 2
Practice—Write the Following in Scientific
Notation, Continued

123.4 = 1.234 x 102 8.0012 = 8.0012 x 100

145000 = 1.45 x 105 0.00234 = 2.34 x 10-3

25.25 = 2.525 x 101 0.0123 = 1.23 x 10-2

1.45 = 1.45 x 100 0.000 008706 = 8.706 x 10-6

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", 46

Chapter 2
Practice—Write the Following in Standard
Form, Continued

2.1 x 103 = 2100 4.02 x 100 = 4.02

9.66 x 10-4 = 0.000966 3.3 x 101 = 33

6.04 x 10-2 = 0.0604 1.2 x 100 = 1.2

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", 47
Chapter 2
 Can you hit the bull's-eye?

Three targets
with three
arrows each to
shoot.

How do Both Precise Neither

they accurate but not accurate
and precise accurate nor precise
compare?

Can you define accuracy and precision?

Significant Figures in Measurement
 The numbers reported in a measurement
are limited by the measuring tool

 Significant figures in a measurement

include the known digits plus one
estimated digit
Counting Significant Figures

Number of Significant Figures

38.15 cm 4
5.6 ft 2
65.6 lb ___
122.55 m ___

Complete: All non-zero digits in a measured

number are (significant or not significant).
Leading Zeros
Number of Significant Figures
0.008 mm 1
0.0156 oz 3
0.0042 lb ____
0.000262 mL ____
Complete: Leading zeros in decimal numbers
are (significant or not significant).
Sandwiched Zeros
Number of Significant Figures
50.8 mm 3
2001 min 4
0.702 lb ____
0.00405 m ____
Complete: Zeros between nonzero numbers are
(significant or not significant).
Trailing Zeros
Number of Significant Figures
25,000 in. 2
200 yr 1
48,600 gal 3
25,005,000 g ____
Complete: Trailing zeros in numbers without
decimals are (significant or not significant) if
they are serving as place holders.
 Learning Check

A. Which answers contain 3 significant figures?

1) 0.4760 2) 0.00476 3) 4760
B. All the zeros are significant in
1) 0.00307 2) 25.300 3) 2.050 x 103

C. 534,675 rounded to 3 significant figures is

1) 535 2) 535,000 3) 5.35 x 105
 Solution

A. Which answers contain 3 significant figures?

2) 0.00476 3) 4760
B. All the zeros are significant in
2) 25.300 3) 2.050 x 103

C. 534,675 rounded to 3 significant figures is

2) 535,000 3) 5.35 x 105
Learning Check

In which set(s) do both numbers contain

the same number of significant figures?
1) 22.0 and 22.00
2) 400.0 and 40
3) 0.000015 and 150,000
Solution

In which set(s) do both numbers contain

the same number of significant figures?

3) 0.000015 and 150,000

Learning Check SF3

State the number of significant figures in each of

the following:
A. 0.030 m 1 2 3
B. 4.050 L 2 3 4
C. 0.0008 g 1 2 4
D. 3.00 m 1 2 3
E. 2,080,000 bees 3 5 7
Solution

A. 0.030 m 2
B. 4.050 L 4
C. 0.00008 g 1
D. 3.00 m 3
E. 2,080,000 bees 3
Significant Numbers in Calculations
 A calculated answer cannot be more precise
than the measuring tool.
 A calculated answer must match the least
precise measurement.
 Significant figures are needed for final answers
from
1) adding or subtracting
2) multiplying or dividing
 Adding and Subtracting

The answer has the same number of decimal

places as the measurement with the fewest
decimal places.

25.2 one decimal place

+ 1.34 two decimal places
26.54
answer 26.5 one decimal place
Learning Check

In each calculation, round the answer to the

correct number of significant figures.
A. 235.05 + 19.6 + 2.1 =
1) 256.75 2) 256.8 3) 257

B. 58.925 - 18.2 =
1) 40.725 2) 40.73 3) 40.7
Solution

A. 235.05 + 19.6 + 2.1 =

2) 256.8

B. 58.925 - 18.2 =
3) 40.7
Multiplying and Dividing

Round (or add zeros) to the calculated answer

until you have the same number of significant
figures as the measurement with the fewest
significant figures.
 Learning Check

A. 2.19 X 4.2 =
1) 9 2) 9.2 3) 9.198

B. 4.311 ÷ 0.07 =
1) 61.58 2) 62 3) 60

C. 2.54 X 0.0028 =
0.0105 X 0.060
1) 11.3 2) 11 3) 0.041
 Solution

A. 2.19 X 4.2 = 2) 9.2

B. 4.311 ÷ 0.07 = 3) 60

C. 2.54 X 0.0028 = 2) 11
0.0105 X 0.060

Continuous calculator operation =

2.54 x 0.0028  0.0105  0.060
 2.6 Rounding Off Numbers

 Often when doing arithmetic on a

pocket calculator, the answer is
displayed with more significant figures
than are really justified.
 How do you decide how many digits to
keep?
 Simple rules exist to tell you how.

Chapter Two 67
 Once you decide how many digits to retain, the rules for
rounding off numbers are straightforward:

 RULE 1. If the first digit you remove is 4 or less, drop it

and all following digits. 2.4271 becomes 2.4 when
rounded off to two significant figures because the first
dropped digit (a 2) is 4 or less.
 RULE 2. If the first digit removed is 5 or greater, round
up by adding 1 to the last digit kept. 4.5832 is 4.6 when
rounded off to 2 significant figures since the first
dropped digit (an 8) is 5 or greater.
 If a calculation has several steps, it is best to round off
at the end.

Chapter Two 68
 Practice Rule #2 Rounding

Make the following into a 3 Sig Fig number

Your Final number
1.5587 1.56 must be of the same
.0037421 .00374 value as the number
you started with,
1367 1370 129,000 and not 129
128,522 129,000
1.6683 106 1.67 106
 Examples of Rounding

For example you want a 4 Sig Fig number

4965.03 4965 0 is dropped, it is <5

780,582 780,600 8 is dropped, it is >5; Note you

must include the 0’s

1999.5 2000. 5 is dropped it is = 5; note you

need a 4 Sig Fig
 How many significant figures are in each of the
following numbers?
0.0035 2 significant figures—leading zeros
are not significant.
1.080 4 significant figures—trailing and
interior zeros are significant.
2371 4 significant figures—All digits are
significant.
2.97 × 105 3 significant figures—Only decimal
parts count as significant.
1 dozen = 12 Unlimited significant figures—Definition
100,000 1, no decimal

71
Determine the Number of Significant
Figures,

 12000 2  0.0012 2

3 3
 120.  0.00120

 12.00 4  1201 4

 1.20 x 103 3  1201000 4

Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", 72

Chapter 2
 How many sig figs?

45.8736 6 •All digits count

.000239 3 •Leading 0’s don’t
.00023900 5 •Trailing 0’s do
48000. 5 •0’s count in decimal form
48000 2 •0’s don’t count w/o decimal
3.982106 4 •All digits count
1.00040 6 •0’s between digits count as
well as trailing in decimal form
 Mixed Order of Operation

8.52 + 4.1586  18.73 + 153.2 =

= 8.52 + 77.89 + 153.2 = 239.61 = 239.6

(8.52 + 4.1586)  (18.73 + 153.2) =

= 12.68  171.9 = 2179.692 = 2180.