READING SEMINAR IN HUMANITIES 1

LECTURE # 5

THE ROMAN HERITAGE

BY

DR. KWAKU OSEI-AKOM

OCTOBER 5 – 9, 2010
Introduction
 The civilization that would become the Roman one arose at the same
time as that of Ancient Greece

 The Latins who founded Rome were farmers and herders. During
their history, they fought with other Latins for control of the
neighbourhood areas. Their struggles helped shape a belief in duty,
discipline, and patriotism.

 At the same time, Romans adopted ideas from the advanced

civilizations of the Phoenicians and Greeks, who had set up colonies in
Sicily and Italy. For example, from the Greeks, the Romans learned to
build fortified cities and to grow grapes and olives.

 About 600 B.C.E., Etruscans invaders who had come out Asia by way
of Greece dominated the Italian peninsula. During the next 100 years,
the Romans absorbed many ideas from their Etruscan conquerors.
 The Romans adopted Etruscan alphabet, which the Etruscans had borrowed
from the Greeks. They copied Etruscan styles of art and worshipped Etruscan
gods alongside their own. They also learned Etruscan building techniques,
including the arch.

 Roman legend held that Rome was founded in 753 B.C.E. by Romulus, an
orphan, who, with his twin brother, Remus, had been suckled by a wolf as
the boys’ foster-mother.
 One Etruscan religious cult revered wolves, and this legend is taken as
further evidence that Roman civilization had Etruscan roots.

Founding the Republic

 In 509 B.C. E., Rome joined with other Latin cities overthrew the Etruscan
king. This set the Romans on a 900-year course that would lead them to all
corners of the then known world
 Etruscan influence continued, however, and it was largely due to that
influence and its inherited links with Greece that the Romans carried forward
the classical ideas that continue to manifest the Western approach to life
today.
 Once free of Etruscan domination, the Romans established a
republican form of government.

 In a republic, all citizens with the right to vote choose their leaders.
The elected leaders represent the leaders and rule in their name. The
Roman republic lasted 500 years, during which time Rome grew from
a small city-state into a world power.

 In the early Republic, Roman society was dominated by a class of

wealthy landowners or patricians. The common people, including
farmers, artisans, small merchants, and traders, were called plebeians.
Plebeians were citizens and could own land, but they could not hold
public office or marry into patrician families.

 Slaves made up the lowest class in Roman society. Most slaves were
prisoners of war, but some were plebeians who had been enslaved for
debt. Slaves were not citizens and had no legal rights.
Early government
 In many ways the Roman Republic functioned as a democracy. Decisions
affecting society were made at a series of assemblies, which all citizens
attended to express their will.

 Patricians controlled the government of the early Republic through the

Senate. The Senate, a hereditary institution, was made up of 300 patricians
who served for life. It guided foreign and domestic policies.

 Every year, the Senate chose two consuls, or officials, from their own class
to administer the laws of Rome. A popular assembly, elected by the
plebeians, approved the choice of consuls, but it had little real power.

 During their one year terms, the consuls directed the government and
commanded the army. The consuls had equal power. Each had the right to
veto, or block an action of the other. In Latin, the word “veto” means “I
forbid.”

 In times of crisis, the Senate would appoint a dictator to replace the consuls.
A dictator had absolute power but could only hold office for six months.
The Roman Family
 Romans lived in large extended families. The government rewarded
parents of many children and penalized bachelors.
 Large families guaranteed a steady supply of soldiers to fight in wars
and of farmers to settle newly conquered lands.
 Under Roman law, the father had absolute power over the entire
household. Roman law gave him the right to sell a son or daughter into
slavery and to abandon an unwanted infant.
 In practice, Roman fathers were generally fair-minded. Their
discipline was strict, but they were also concerned for the family
welfare. Children learned the responsibilities of citizens early. Parents
stressed the virtues of hard work, courage, and loyalty

Education
 By 250 B.C.E., some wealthy families began importing Greek tutors
to educate their children. But most fathers supervised their children’s
education personally.
 Some boys and girls from rich families attended private schools. Girls often
received as thorough an education as boys
 Schools emphasized history, which students recited aloud. Stories of Roman
heroes gave children a sense of pride in their city. Students also learned
practical skills such as reading, writing, and public speaking.

Women in Roman society

 During the early Republic, Roman women had few legal rights. They were
citizens and might be called on testify in court, but they could not vote or
hold public office. Fathers usually arranged marriages for their daughters by
the time the girls were 14 years old.
 Later, Roman women gained more rights when new laws gave them control
over their own property. Women could make wills leaving their property as
they chose.
 Roman attitudes toward women differed from Greek attitudes. Romans did
not restrict women to a separate section of the house. Women could attend
the theatre and join in public festivals.
 Some women had political influence in Rome, especially if their husbands or
fathers held public office.
 Roman women often shared in household decisions and kept the family
accounts. In addition, they supervised the children and any slaves owned by
the family.

Religion

 The Romans worshipped many gods in private and public. Each household
had a shrine devoted to the spirits that Romans believed protected the home
and the fields.
 Every day, family members gathered to make offerings to Vesta, goddess of
the hearth. Such daily rituals taught children to respect and defend the family
and its gods.
 Romans were fond of public religious festivals and games dedicated to
individual gods and goddesses. For example, at the start of each month and
year, Romans worshipped Janus, the god of beginnings. His name has
survived in the English word “January.”
 Romans absorbed religious beliefs from other people. They
worshipped Jupiter, an Etruscan god, who was identified with the
Greek god Zeus.
 The Roman goddess Venus was similar to Aphrodite, the Greek
goddess of love.
 As Rome grew stronger, its gods took new powers. Mars, once simply
the god of the fields, became god of war during the centuries of
Roman conquests.

Roman Warriors
 At first, only patricians served in the Roman army. But after the Gauls
burned Rome in 390 B.C.E., the Senate turned to the plebeians for
help
 It required all citizens who owned land – plebeians and patricians – to
serve.
 The Romans became skilled soldiers as every male was required to
spend some time in the army. As the military power grew, the Romans
began battling for more land. By about 270 B.C.E., Rome had taken
over the whole of the Italian peninsula.
 One of Rome’s greatest enemy was Carthage. Between 264 B.C.E. and
146 B.C.E., Rome and Carthage fought three exhausting wars. These
were called the Punic Wars, from the Latin word “Punicus,” meaning
Phoenician.
 The second Punic War pitched the fierce Carthaginian general named
Hannibal against the Romans. For 13 years, Hannibal led his army up
and down Italy. He won more battles against the Roman forces but
gradually the Romans grew stronger.
 Finally Hannibal was driven out of Italy. Then the Romans invaded
Africa and defeated Hannibal’s army in 202 B.C.E.
 During the second war between Carthage and Rome, Macedonia had
sided with the Carthaginians. Macedonia was still the most powerful
state in Greece
 After taking Carthage, Rome sent armies into Greece. The Roman
armies conquered the Greek city-states and brought Greek treasures
back to Rome, introducing Roman citizens to Greek art and style.
 The Romans made slaves of the conquered Greeks. Many of the
slaves were used as labourers.
 Some of the Greek captives were very well educated. They became teachers and
doctors in Rome.
 Many Greek slaves found themselves with kind Roman masters, masters who
respected them. Some Greeks were able to earn their freedom. So in many ways,
Roman culture was influenced by the Greeks
 By 140 B.C.E., Rome controlled all of the Mediterranean lands. Citizens of the
Republic thought of the Mediterranean Sea as a Roman sea.

The Provinces
 Rome organized its foreign lands into provinces, headed by governors
appointed by the Senate. Each Roman governor supervised tax collection and
organized the defense of the province. Rome did not try to not try to change
local customs, religion, or governments.

 This tolerant policy made Roman domination more acceptable to the conquered
peoples. Yet roman rule was a mixed blessing. Some governors built roads and
developed the economy. However, others abused their power.
 Governors received no pay because the job was considered an honour, but many
grew rich by accepting bribes.
Changes at Home

 Expanding the territory brought the Romans many gains. They were
introduced to the advanced learning of the Greeks. Also trade and
commerce increased as wealthy Romans demanded expensive luxuries
from the conquered territories
 But the wars of expansion created problems for Romans at home. Three
“prizes” of wars had profound effect on life in the capital: grain, treasure,
and slaves.
 Tons of grain poured into Rome as tribute, or forced payment, from the
conquered areas. The resulting surplus drove down the price of grain. The
low prices hurt small farmers, many of whom had to sell their land to pay
debts.
 At the same time, a new class of Romans grew rich from war loot and
trade in luxury goods. This new class bought up land from small farmers
and created vast estates called latifundia. They used thousands of slaves
brought back as prisoners of war as cheap labor on the latifundia. Small
farmers could not compete with the slave labor and their land.
 Landless farmers drifted to Rome, where they joined unemployed
soldiers also attracted to the capital.
 In Rome, the poor complained bitterly about the luxury of the rich. As
their numbers grew, the poor became a huge, restless mob easily
swayed to violence by bribes and promises
 The economic and social problems created by wars of expansion were
to plague Rome for years.

The Decline of the Republic

“The men who fought their country’s battles enjoyed nothing but the air
and sunlight. They fight and die to protect the wealth and luxury of
others. They are called masters of the world, but they have not a foot
of ground to call their own.” So said Tiberius Gracchus.

 As spokesman for the plebeians, Tiberius raised the issue that haunted
Rome.
 Hordes of landless poor roamed the streets. The Senate was the
governing body of Rome. But it was full of wealthy men who were more
interested in preserving their privileges than in solving the problems of
the poor.

Revolts and Upheavals

Popular leaders such as Tiberius and his brother championed the poor.
They called for the Senate to limit the size of large estates, redistribute
land to the poor, and settle landless farmers in the provinces.

 The Senate feared the popularity of the Gracchus brothers, and most
senators opposed land reform. Therefore, they turned to violence. Mobs
of wealthy nobles murdered first Tiberius and later Gaius Gracchus, along
with hundreds of their followers.
 In time, the Senate was forced to pass some minor land reform. But it did
nothing to prevent growing numbers of unemployed soldiers and landless
from increasing the mobs in Rome.
 Between 133 B.C.E. and 44 B.C.E., violent upheavals shook Rome.
Abroad, slave revolts erupted, and Rome’s allies in Italy and
elsewhere rebelled.

 The Senate relied on Roman legions to suppress the rebellions. But

the Roman army itself had changed, and Roman generals began to
dabble in politics.

 In the early Republic, as already indicated, only landowning citizens

served in Roman legions. By 100 B.C.E., popular generals were
recruiting soldiers from among Rome’s landless poor.

 With promises of loot, they attracted many volunteers. They built

strong professional army loyal to them rather than to Rome.

 The won victories for Rome abroad but then returned home to reap
their rewards.
 In 88 B.C.E., a bloody civil war erupted in Rome between the armies
of two successful generals.
 Lucius Cornelius Sulla triumphed and then abolished the law limiting
a dictator’s length of rule to six months.

 Although the Senate retained its prestige, Sulla held real power. For
the next 40 years, Rome was ruled by a series of generals

Rise of Julius Caesar

 One general, Gnaeus Pompey, led his legions in a series of successful

campaigns in Greece, Syria, and Palestine. However, when he returned
to Rome, the Senate refused to approve land grants to Pompey’s
soldiers.

 Pompey disbanded his army and looked for allies. He found one in a
talented young general.
 Caesar had won victories in Spain and had attracted a large
following in Rome. Like Pompey, Caesar resented the Senate.

 in 61 B.C.E., Caesar had hoped to be elected consul, but the Senate,

fearing his popularity, blocked his bid for power.

 In 60 B.C.E., Caesar and Pompey formed an alliance with Marcus

Lucius Crassus, a wealthy general. They agreed to pool their resources
and rule Rome together. Their alliance is known as the First
Triumvirate, or three-men commission.

 The First Triumvirate gained control of Rome but was soon split by
rivalries. In 53 B.C.E., Crassus died fighting in the east. But Caesar
piled up new conquests in Gaul (France) and Britain.

 Fearing Caesar’s power, Pompey allied himself with the Senate. In

49 B.C.E., the Senate ordered Caesar to disband his armies and return
to Rome. Caesar refused.
 With his legions, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River, the boundary
between Gaul and Italy.
 Today, the expression “crossing the Rubicon” means taking a final
decisive step. Caesar then crushed an army led by Pompey.

Caesar’s Reforms

 Between 49 B.C.E. and 44 B.C.E., Caesar won a string of victories in

the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. On his triumphant return to
Rome, he pardoned many Senators who had supported Pompey. In 44
B.C.E., he was appointed dictator for life.

 Caesar introduced reforms meant to strengthen Rome and protect his

power. He distributed land to the poor and granted Roman citizenship
to people in the provinces outside Italy.
 This action helped to unite the empire by giving people in the
provinces a stake in Rome.
 To reduce unemployment, he began many building projects. He
increased pay for soldiers and moved to end corruption in the
provinces.

 He introduced a more accurate calendar based on Greek astronomy.

The Julian calendar, as it was called, was used in Europe until 1582
C.E.

 Although the Senate and Assembly of Tribes continued to exist,

Caesar has absolute power. Opposition to him grew in the Senate.
Some Senators denounced him as a tyrant who was destroying the
Republic.

 Others were jealous of his popularity. On March 15, 44 B.C.E., a

group of conspirators led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus stabbed
Caesar to death.

 In the civil war that followed, the Republic suffered a fatal blow.
The Second Triumvirate.

 Before his death, Caesar had adopted his 18-year-old grandnephew

Octavian as his son and heir. After Caesar’s assassination, Octavian formed
the Second Triumvirate with two of Caesar’s commanders, Mark Antony and
Marcus Lepidus.

 After crushing Caesar’s assassins, the Second Triumvirate dissolved into a

power struggle between Octavian and Antony.

 When Antony married Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, Octavian feared they

planned to seize power. So he declared war. In 31 B.C.E., at the naval battle
of Actium off Greece, Octavian defeated them.

 Antony and Cleopatra fled back to Egypt. They later committed suicide
when they learned that Octavian’s forces had landed at Alexandria . The
following year, Egypt became part of the Roman Empire.
 On his return to Rome, Octavian promised to share control of the
Empire with the Senate.

 In practice, however, he had absolute authority. In 27 B.C.E., the

Senate, realizing that peace depended on his leadership, gave Octavian
the title Augustus, or “Exalted One,” a name normally reserved for the
gods.
 After 100 years of civil war, peace was finally restored under
Augustus.

The Age of Augustus

 Under Augustus, Rome ceased to be a republic and became an

empire. The Senate gave him the title imperator, or commander-in-
chief of the Roman armies. The English word “emperor” is derived
from this Latin title.
 Although the Senate still existed, Augustus ruled as a monarch.
 Between 27 B.C.E. and 14 C.E., Augustus sponsored many reforms
to strengthen the empire.

 He reorganized the army into a highly disciplined, professional body,

loyal to the emperor. He encouraged former soldiers to settle in the
provinces, where they could bolster local defense.

 He continued Caesar’s policy of granting Roman citizenship to

people in the provinces. Such measures ensured loyalty of these
people to Rome and spread Roman ideas.

 The reforms helped restore confidence in Rome. To reduce

corruption and improve local administration, Augustus created an
efficient civil service.
 High-level jobs were open to men of talent, regardless of their social
class. Also, civil servants were given salaries for their service. The
emperor ordered a complete census so that taxes could be set fairly.
The Successors of Augustus

 The first four emperors who followed Augustus were members of his
family. Tiberius and Claudius were efficient reformers who continued
to make reforms. However, Caligula and Nero were notorious for their
insane behavior.

 In 64 C.E., a great fire destroyed much of Rome. Nero blamed

Christians for the fire and killed hundreds of them. His rule then sank
into a vicious reign of terror.

 After his death in 68 C.E., the first of many struggles broke out over
who would become the emperor. The Roman Empire had no laws for
choosing a new ruler.
 In the second century C.E., Rome benefited from peaceful succession
of several outstanding emperors. Under Trajan the empire reached its
greatest size.
The Roman Heritage

 Romans absorbed much of Greek culture but also kept their own
traditions. The result was a blend of Greek and Roman traditions.
 Through conquest, Romans spread Greco-Roman civilization to
every corner of their empire.

Art and Architecture

 When the Romans conquered Greece, they shipped home thousands
of Greek statues. Roman sculptors did a brisk business by copying
Greek works, and talented Greek artists found rich patrons in Rome.
 In time, however, Roman sculptors developed their own style . Greek
sculptors idealized the human form, using athletes as models of
perfection. Romans created more realistic portraits.
 While Romans borrowed many ideas in architecture, they also made
important advances. They learned to use columns and arches from the
Etruscans and Greeks. dome.
 They improved on the arch by inventing the dome, a roof formed by
rounded arches. The Romans also introduced new building materials
such as concrete and cement
 New building techniques allowed architects to design massive
structures

Technology and Science

Roman Law

Roman Literature

Christianity