INTELLIGENCE

Dr.R.Pratap Chander
 INTRODUCTION
• A general term referring to the overall capacity for learning and
problem solving.

• “Aptitude” - ability to learn a particular kind of skill required in a

specific situation. eg: Pilot a plane, professional floor plan.

• Wide variations in understanding the concept of intelligence

 THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

• “Factor Theories” - identifying the factors/components that

constitute intelligence

• “Process-oriented Theories” - processes involved in accomplishing

the intellectual activity
 FACTOR THEORIES
• Intelligence: Single characteristic? Collection of specific
abilities?
• Single ability?

• Few factors collectively?

• Each intellectual task has diiferent

abilities?
• “Factor Analysis”- statistical technique of identifying groups of
abilities / behaviours / traits that are related to one another.

• Several specific sub-tests each desgned to measure one specific

cognitive ability. eg: recall nos, arrange pictures in order...

• Correlation Coefficient done. Subtests that correlate well are said to

represent a common factor.

• Correlation Coefficient measures a degree of relation between two

variables.
• By inspecting the common sub-tests, we can make a judgement
about the nature of that particular factor.

remembering a series of numbers

recalling details of a story
reconstructing a design without seeing
recalling series of steps from an instruction manual

MEMORY
Issues:
• Different methods of analysis can yield different factors.
• Hard to judge which facctors are the best.
• Can form groups of subtests but cannot tell which subtests are more
or less important than the others/ which to include or exclude.
• Dependent on what the psychologist gives priority. eg: if more
importance is given to assessing mechanical ability, it doesn't
neccessarily mean it is an integral component of intelligence.

Subjective Judgements
“G-Factor Theory”
• One of the earliest and most infulential factor theories
• British Psychologist Charles Spearman (1927)

• Noted that number of cognitive tasks and intellectual tasks correlated.

People scoring high in one, usually scored high in the other too

• G - broad general intelligence factor; common for all tests

• S - specific factor; specific to the particular intellectual task

• A particular intellectual task taps into both the G factor, as well as the S
factor specific for that task.
• Basis for IQ test where a single score reflects the level of intelligence
“Multifactor Theories”
• Some theorists noted that certain clusters of tests has higher correlation to
one another than with others.
• eg: numerical calculation tests; memory recall tests;

• L.L.Thurstone (1938) - Primary Mental Abilities test

• performed a set of 56 tests

• identified correlations --> factors “Primary Mental Abilities”

• Verbal comprehension, word fluence, perceptual speed, memory,

numerical ability, spatial ability and reasoning

• Assembled tests to measure the above abilities.

J.P.Guilford (1967)
• Massive analysis of many existing
tests

• 3 dimensional theory
five kinds of operations
six kinds of products
four kinds of contents

• Cubical model of intelligence

• 120 factors- each factor represents a

primary ability that is some
combination of operations, products
and contents
“Hierarchical Theory”
• Elements of G-factor theory and multifactor theories combined.
• Vernon (1950)
 PROCESS-ORIENTED THEORIES
• Focus on “intellectual processes”- patterns of thinking that people
use when they reason and solve problems.

• “How to solve correctly?” vs “How many correct answers?”

• Focus on development of intellectual processes and how they change

as individuals mature
Piaget's Theory:
• Jean Piaget (1970)

• Intelligence is an adaptive process that involves an interplay of

biological maturation and interaction with the environment.

• Intellectual development is an evolution of cognitive processes. eg:

understanding laws of nature, principles of grammar, mathematical
rules
Bruner's Theory:
• Jerome Bruner (1973)

• Intellectual development has a growing reliance on internal

representation.

• Babies “know” an object by what they can do with it.

• Young children know by perceiving them.
• Older children start knowing internally, can form mental images and
hold on to them.
Information-Processing Theories:
• Intelligence is broken down to basic skills that people employ to
take in the information, process it, and use it to reason or solve.

• Robert Stenberg (1984)

 “Components”- steps taken to solve a problem
 “Metacomponents”- kinds of knowledge to be known to solve it

• Juan Pascaul-Leone (1983), Siegler (1983), Fischer (1980)

 ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE
STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE

• Originally developed by Binet and Simon to identify MR in french

schools

• Lewis Terman (1916) from Stanford University made a successful,

english version - Stanford-Binet

• Revised multiple times. Terman and Merrill (1973)

• Binet's observation: MR children seemed to think like non-retarded
children at younger ages.

• Devised the test by age levels. Tasks at each level are those that
average children at that age should find moderately difficult.
• Test is constructed in a way that a random population of children in a
given “Chronological age” would get an average score i.e “Mental
age” equal to the chronological age.

• “Basal age” - Highest level at which all items are passed by the child.
• “Ceiling age” - Lowest level at which all items are failed by the child.
• MA/CA ratio gives the “Intelligence Quotient”

• Proposed by Psychologist William Stern (1912)

• (MA/CA) * 100 = Ratio IQ

• Not much useful in adults since MA does not increase in a rapid or

orderly manner.
 WECHSLER TESTS
• David Wechsler

1. WAIS-R: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Revised (1981)

2. WPPSI: Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (1967)

3. WISC-R: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Revised (1974)

• Multiple subtests grouped under 2 categories - Verbal & Performance

• He devised the concept of “Deviation IQ”

• Standard deviation- measure of spread or variability of the scores in

the group.
• Large SD - number of the scores “deviate” quite a bit from the mean.

eg: 1st test score: 80; Mean- 70; SD- 10 ---> 1 SD above the mean
2nd test score: 80; Mean- 70; SD- 15 ---> 0.67 SD above the mean
Deviation IQ: Score is expressed in terms of SD units. Called “Standard
Scores”

• Actual raw scores obtained were converted to standard scores

• 3 different Deviation IQs- verbal, performance and full scale IQ.

Standard score = Individual's score - Mean

Standard Deviation
 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE
• Intelligence distribution- Bell shaped
distribution / normal curve;
Majority score in the middle range while
a few score very high or very low.

• Differences in intelligence can greatly

affect the ability of the person to cope
with the demands of society. eg:
technology, competitiveness

• School system- caters to the middle

range
 MENTAL SUBNORMALITY
Mentally Retarded:
1. IQ < 70 in an appropriate intelligence test
2. adaptive skills inadequate to cope with ordinary daily tasks
 Early age - attainment of developmental skills
 School age - academic skills, using money
 adulthood - vocational performance, social responsibilities

• Low IQ need not always be accompanied by poor adaptive skills,

particularly among the mildly retarded range (55 - 69)
Levels of Mental Retardation:
• Recommended by American
Association of Mental Deficiency
(Grossman, 1977)

• Mildly retarded adult - MA of 8½

to 11yrs

• Moderate - MA of 6 to 8½yrs

• Severe - MA of 3¾ to 6yrs
Causes of Mental Retardation and Prevention:
• In general, 2 causes:
 IQ fall by chance, i.e due to cultural-familial or sociocultural
causes. Usually IQ > 50.

 MR due to defects that prevent normal development.

 Genetic/chromosomal defects. eg: Down's
 Environmental. eg: Rubella, Syphillis
 Insult/injury to brain. eg: X-rays, drugs, hypoxia
 INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT & BEHAVIORAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MENTALLY RETARDED
• Among Socio-cultural MR, it is suggested that during the time of
intellectual development, the child passes through the major stages
of cognitive development as described by Piaget(1970) in the same
way as a normal child.

• The difference: occurs at a slower pace, and the development stops at

a lower level when compared to that of a normal child. (Weisz &
Zigler, 1979)
• A retarded child at a particular MA level can apparently perform
cognitive tasks as well as non-retarded children of the same MA.
(Weisz & Zigler, 1981)

• However, they need not have the same behaviour in

achieving/problem solving skills. They can have a tendency to be
passive or dependent on others, which grows stronger with time.
• (Zigler & Balla, 1982) described such children as “Outer- directed” i.e.
overly dependent on cues from other people.

Reasons:
Such children have experienced so much failure, that they begin each
new activity with a low expectency of success.
Adults tend to accept the behaviour and performance level of such
children; and are generally considered “low in ability”

• (Weisz, 1981) compared the adults response to problem-solving

failure in retarded vs non-retarded children with same MA; and
found that:
 saw “low ability” as cause for failure in MR children
 rated them to be less likely to succeed in future attempts
 they would be less likely to urge the MR children to persist
with the problem
EDUCATION AND “TREATMENT” FOR MR
• Unfortunately, MR cannot be undone/cured.

• Special training can sometimes produce modest changes in IQ and

adaptive behaviour.

• It can also enhance the child's social and self-help skills.

• Aim is to ensure the child's needs for help and affection are met, peer
acceptance, and later on, ability to live in a community setting.
THE MENTALLY GIFTED
• Upper end of the IQ distribution.

• No proper definition. IQ > 120? 140?

• IQ > 115 → 16%

• IQ > 130 → 2%
A child with high IQ,

• class topper/ star pupil/ teacher's pet

• can also be a misfit, misunderstood by peers and can be regarded as

impudent.

2 studies:
 Lewis Terman(1925) Children with IQ>140→ generally well adjusted
 Leta Hollingsworth (1942) Children with IQ>180→ very poorly
adjusted, gross underachievers, extremely unhappy, some are even
suicidal.
Reason:
• Such children are trapped in a world with very few real peers.
• “Out of sync” intellectually with own age group
• “Out of sync” physically and socially with older group of same intellect

• As they get older/mature, they are able to find settings and social groups;
and their abilities become an asset.
• Gifted adults appear to be happier and better adjusted than most other
people. (Terman & Oden,1959; Sears & Barbee,1977)
 GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON INTELLIGENCE

Is intelligence determined by Heredity? or by Environment?

• Simple answer: Both

Very difficult to actually study

need to study at gene level ?ethical limits of genetic research

One way is to compare the IQ of people who differ in the degree of
genetic relatedness

• Fraternal twins: identical in 50% of genes

• Identical twins: identical in 100% of genes

• Logically, identical twins should have very similar IQ level.

• (Scarr, 1981) - Studied around 20 studies from Britain, France,
Finland, Germany, Sweden and the U.S.A
• Noted substantial difference in comparing the scores between
fraternal twins with that of the identical twins.

• Supports the notion that genes have a considerable influence on IQ

• Identical twins seperated at childhood and brought up in different
environments were studied in 3 different countries.

• On a scale of 0-1, correlations in the IQ ranged from 0.67-0.78

• Again suggesting that genetic similarity leads to similarity in

intelligence.
• (Scarr,1981) Compared the IQ of adopted children, with that of their biological
parents and adoptive parents.

• if more correlation to biological parents → suggestive of genetic influence

• if more correlation to adoptive parents → suggestive of environmental influence

• Found to correlate more strongly with the biological parents.

• Studies comparing normal siblings/ unrelated people brought up in
same atmosphere correlated more closely in IQ as compared to those
brought up in different environments.

• Shows that environment also has a significant influence.

• (Skeels, 1966; Ramey & Campbell, 1979) found that extremely low
rearing condns were associated with low IQ; eniched and educational
conditions were associated with higher IQ.
Current belief:
• Genes provide us with a “reaction range” i.e. range of possible
intellectual levels that we may attain.

• Nature and quality of environment may have a major influence on

how much of our potential do we actually attain.
GROUP DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE
• Americans are more intelligent than Africans.

• Asians are very good in maths.

• Older people are wiser.

• Male/female preference for a particular job/task.

Research indicates that differences do exist; but often not the way
people imagine it.
Sex differences:

• Overall IQ among males and females at any age are virtually the same

• During childhood, girls do show an early and increasing superiority on

verbal behaviour.
• During adolesence,

 Girls do better in
 verbal expression and fluency
 perception of details quickly and accurately
 rapid, accurate manual movements

 Boys do better in
 Spacial
 Numerical
 Mechanical
Home environment:
• Home with professional parents vs illiterate parents

• (Bradley & Caldwell, 1976) did a study on 77 normal children.

 Infant Development Scale and Home Assessment Inventory @ 6months
 Stanford-Binet IQ Test @ 3yrs
• Home Assessment Inventory predicted the IQ @ 3yrs better than the
Infant Development Scale.

• Appropriate enviroment → increasing scores

• Disorganized environment with poor mental stimulation →
decreasing scores
Racial Differences:
• Very sensitive area
• In general,
 Caucasian and Asian American tend to do well
 Native American and Black tend to do less well
 Mexican and Puerto Rican tend to fall inbetween

 Variations will also be noted depending on the part of the country,

social class, educational level, etc.
 Environmental factors, Caste, Cultural beliefs also play a role.
• The differences seen within a group is more important that among
different groups.

• Our major focus must be on the individual.

• The individual's differences from others in the same group must be

recognized, and oppurtunities provided to make him benefit from it-
irrespective of their race or background.
TESTING FOR SPECIAL APTITUDES

• Intellectual tests: broad assessment of the intellectual capacity

• Aptitude tests: To measure the more specialized abilities required in

specific occupations and activities.
• Scholastic Aptitudes: SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test), GRE (Graduate
Record Examination), MAT ( Miller's Analogies Test)

• Vocational Aptitudes: Architect floor plan, Engineer repairing a motor,

Operators using heavy machinery.

• Psychomotor tests: Manual dexterity, steadiness, muscular strength,

speed of response to a signal, co-ordinated movements, etc.