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Issues To Address... : Stress Strain Elastic Plastic
Issues To Address... : Stress Strain Elastic Plastic
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations
cause permanent deformation? What materials are
most resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
• Ceramic Materials: What special provisions/tests are
made for ceramic materials? 1
QUIZZ SSM 6 OKTOBER 2011
Terangkan :
1. Deformasi plastis (plastic deformation)
2. Fenomena luluh dan kekuatan luluh (yielding and
yield strength)
3. Kekuatan tarik (tensile strength)
4. Keuletan (ductility)
5. Modulus elastisitas (elastic modulus)
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
F
2
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
(METALS)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
Ft
s
Ao
original area
before loading Stress has units:
N/m2 or lb/in2
4
COMMON STATES OF STRESS
• Simple tension: cable
F
s
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
• Simple shear: drive shaft
Fs
t
Ao
Note: t = M/AcR here.
5
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)
• Simple compression:
Ao
Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson) (s < 0 here).
6
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:
sz > 0 s h< 0
7
ENGINEERING STRAIN
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
/2
Lo
wo
/2
L/2 L/2
• Shear strain:
/2
/2 /2
8
STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
• Typical tensile specimen • Typical tensile
test machine
Adapted from Fig. 6.2,
Callister 6e.
• Hooke's Law:
s=Ee
• Poisson's ratio, n:
metals: n ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~0.25
polymers: ~0.40
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless
10
PROPERTIES FROM BONDING: E
• Elastic modulus, E
Elastic modulus
F L
=E
Ao Lo
• E ~ curvature at ro
Energy
unstretched length
ro E is larger if Eo is larger.
r
smaller Elastic Modulus
M
• Elastic Bulk P
modulus, K:
P P
pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= V
E E
G K
2(1 n) 3(1 2n)
12
YOUNG’S MODULI:
COMPARISON
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold AFRE(|| fibers)*
60 Aluminum Glass-soda Glass fibers only Based on data in Table B2,
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister 6e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)* aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester
4 PET
glass (GFRE)
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
0.2 LDPE
13
USEFUL LINEAR ELASTIC
• Simple tension: RELATIONS
• Simple torsion:
M=moment
=angle of twist
Lo
2ro
15
YIELD STRENGTH, sy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy
engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002
16
YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON
sy(ceramics)
>>sy(metals)
>> sy(polymers)
Room T values
Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
17
TENSILE STRENGTH, TS
• Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.
TS(ceram)
~TS(met)
~ TS(comp)
>> TS(poly)
Room T values
Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
19
DUCTILITY, %EL
L f Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL x100
Lo
Ao A f
• Another ductility measure: %AR x100
Ao
• Note: %AR and %EL are often comparable.
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
20
TOUGHNESS
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)
tensile larger toughness
stress, s (metals, PMCs)
smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers
21
HARDENING
• An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
22
MEASURING ELASTIC MODULUS
• Room T behavior is usually elastic, with brittle failure.
• 3-Point Bend Testing often used.
--tensile tests are difficult for brittle materials.
Adapted from Fig.
12.29, Callister 6e.
b
rect. circ.
24
TENSILE RESPONSE: ELASTOMER
CASE
Stress-strain curves
adapted from Fig.
15.1, Callister 6e.
Inset figures along
elastomer curve
(green) adapted from
Fig. 15.14, Callister
6e. (Fig. 15.14 is from
Z.D. Jastrzebski, The
Nature and Properties
of Engineering
Materials, 3rd ed.,
John Wiley and Sons,
1987.)
• Increasing
strain rate...
--same effects
as decreasing T.
Adapted from Fig. 15.3, Callister 6e. (Fig. 15.3 is from T.S. Carswell
and J.K. Nason, 'Effect of Environmental Conditions on the
Mechanical Properties of Organic Plastics", Symposium on Plastics,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1944.)
26
TIME DEPENDENT
DEFORMATION
• Stress relaxation test: • Data: Large drop in Er
(amorphous
--strain to eo and hold. for T > Tg. polystyrene)
--observe decrease in Adapted from Fig.
stress with time. 15.7, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 15.7 is from
A.V. Tobolsky,
Properties and
Structures of
Polymers, John
Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 1960.)
PC +150
27
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used herein under license.
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used herein under license.
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties
and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)
28
DESIGN OR SAFETY FACTORS
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
sy between
s working 1.2 and 4
N
29
SUMMARY
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.