Cell physiology

Sonar S Panigoro
Dept. of Surgery FKUI/RSCM Jakarta
 Organization of the cell
• Membranes
– Plasma membrane encompasses the functional
cell unit
– Membranes segregate most other individual
components of the cell
• Nucleus
• Organelles

• Cytoplasm - suspension of fluid with various cellular elements

 CELL ORGANELLES

Mitochondrion Nucleus
 CELL ORGANELLES
• Cell Membrane
• Nucleus
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi complex
• Mitochondria
• Lysosomes
• Microfilaments and microtubules
• Vesicles
 THE NUCLEUS
• Site of DNA (In
chromosomes)

• Enclosed by a
membrane
 DNA REPLICATION
• The double helix
“unzips”
• New bases pair up
with the old ones
• The molecule
replicates itself
• Two identical
copies each with
one old strand and
one new
RNA TRANSCRIPTION

• Messenger RNA
“copies” from DNA
• m-RNA caries the
message to the
rough ER
Double membrane

Cristae

Matrix
 MITOCHONDRIA
• Extract Energy from Food Fuels

• Energy is stored in ATP

• Aerobic Metabolism
 Anaerobic Metabolism
• Sugar can be burned without oxygen -
anaerobically
• Far more energy released from burning sugar
aerobically
• Glycolysis is anaerobic-carried out in cytosol
• Glucose ----> 3 Carbon fragments plus 2 ATP
 Aerobic Metabolism
• Pyruvic Acid (3 C fragment) enters
Mitochondria
• Combines with Coenzyme A loosing a CO2 and
becoming Acetyl Coenzyme A (2 C fragment)
• This fragment enters a cyclic reaction scheme,
the Citric Acid Cycle
• Ultimately, 34 more ATP’s are produced
ER -> Golgi -> Secretion
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

• Rough ER: Protein Synthesis

• Smooth ER: Synthesis of Lipids

Rough ER : Site of Protein Synthesis
• Rough ER contains ribosomes
• M-RNA attaches to ribosome
• A triplet of bases is a Codon
• Transfer RNA has an anticodon at one end and
the appropriate amino acid at the other
• As the code is read, amino acids are
assembled into a protein
 Golgi Complex
The devil is in the details
Transport vesicles
from smooth ER

Fuse with golgi

stack, and proteins
undergo refinement

Vesicles containing
final products are
released from distal
stack
 Golgi Complex
Cellular refining facilities

• Post-translational Modification
– Glycosylation (oligosaccharide )
– Disulfide bonds
– Folding
– Quaternary structure:
• Sorting and directing
 Lysosomes
Cellular cleanup crew

• Membrane-enclosed sacs of hydrolytic

enzymes
– Remove cellular debris
– Destroy invading pathogens
 Cytosol
(cytoplasm and cytoskeleton)

• Ribosomal protein synthesis

• Intermediate metabolism and storage: degradation,
synthesis, or transformation of small organic molecules for fuel.
– Metabolism
• Glycolysis - breakdown of simple sugars (esp. glucose) for oxidative metabolism.
Yields small amount of energy.
• Process fatty and amino acids for entry into TCA cycle
– Storage
• Fat droplets (esp adipose cells)
• Glycogen
• Ultrastructure - the cytoskeleton
– Microtubules: at 22 nm, the largest of the cytoskeletal
structures; composed of tubulin
• Architecture: needed to maintain asymetry (Ex. Axons) or act as scaffolding
during development
• Motion via dynein and kinesin
 "free" ribosomes

ER
Plasma membrane

microtubule

Intermediate filaments
microfilament
GENETIC INTRODUCTION
 MENDEL’S LAWS OF HEREDITY
– Gregor Mendol – father of genetics
– 1st studies of heredity – the passing of
characteristics to offspring
– Genetics – study of heredity
– The characteristics passed on called traits
 ALLELES CONT’D
• THESE 2 ALLELS ARE NOW KNOWN TO BE
FOUND ON COPIES OF CHROMOSOMES – ONE
FROM EACH PARENT
 THE RULE OF DOMINANCE
• A dominant trait is the trait that will always be
expressed if at least one dominant allele is present
• The dominant allele is always represented by a
capital letter
• A recessive trait will only be expressed if both
alleles are recessive
• Recessive traits are represented by a lower case
letter
 FATHER MOTHER
F1 Tt T t

TT Tt tt
F2

- the law of dominance explained the heredity of the offspring

of the F1 generation

- the law of segregation explained the heredity of the F2

generation
 PHENOTYPES & GENOTYPES

• PHENOTYPE – THE WAY AN ORGANISM LOOKS

AND BEHAVES – ITS PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS (i.e. – TALL, GREEN, BROWN
HAIR, BLUE EYES, ETC.)
• GENOTYPE – THE GENE COMBONATION
(ALLELIC COMBINATION) OF AN ORGANISM –
(i.e. – TT, Tt, tt, ETC.)
– HOMOZYGOUS – 2 ALLELES ARE THE SAME
– HETEROZYGOUS – 2 ALLELES DIFFERENT
 MENDEL’S DIHYBRID CROSSES
• MONOHYBRID – MENDEL LOOKED AT ONE
TRAIT
• IN HIS DIHYBRID CROSSES – HE LOOKED AT 2
TRAITS
• WANTED TO SEE IF TRAITS ARE INHERITED
TOGETHER OR INDEPENDENTLY
 DIHYBRID CROSS
• TOOK TWO TRUE BREEDING PLANTS FOR 2
DIFFERENT TRAITS (ROUND/WRINKLED SEEDS
------- YELLOW/GREEN SEEDS)
• 1ST GENERATION
– WHAT WOULD HAPPEN IF HE CROSSED JUST TRUE
BREEDING ROUND W/ TRUE BREEDING WRINKLED
(ROUND IS DOMINANT)
ALL THE OFFSPRING ARE ROUND
 DIHYBRID CROSS – 1ST GENERATION CONT’D

• SO WHAT DO YOU THINK HAPPENED WHEN

HE CROSSED TRUE BREEDING
ROUND/YELLOW SEEDS WITH TRUE BREEDING
WRINKLED/GREEN SEEDS
ALL THE F1 WERE ROUND AND YELLOW
 DIHYBRID CROSS – 2ND GENERATION
• TOOK THE F1 PLANTS AND BRED THEM
TOGETHER (PHENOTYPE WAS
ROUND/YELLOW X ROUND/YELLOW)
• 2ND GENERATION
– FOUND ROUND/YELLOW -9
– FOUND ROUND/GREEN -3
– FOUND WRINKLED/YELLOW -3
– FOUND WRINKLED/GREEN -1
( 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 RATIO)
 PUNNETT SQUARE
(MONOHYBRID)

TT X Tt
T T

T T T T T

t T t T t
 NOW LET’S DO A DIHYBRID CROSS
HhGg X HhGg
HG Hg hG hg
HG HHGG HHGg HhGG HhGg

Hg HHGg HHgg HhGg Hhgg

hG HhGG HhGg hhGG hhGg

hg HhGg Hhgg hhGg hhgg

WHAT ARE THE PHENOTYPIC RATIO’S?
HhGg X HhGg
DD: 9
HG Hg hG hg
Dr: 3
HG HHGG HHGg HhGG HhGg rD: 3
rr: 1
Hg HHGg HHgg HhGg Hhgg

hG HhGG HhGg hhGG hhGg

hg HhGg Hhgg hhGg hhgg

 PROBABILITY
• WILL REAL LIFE FOLLOW THE RESULTS FROM A
PUNNETT SQUARE?
• NO!!!!!! – A PUNNETT SQUARE ONLY SHOWS
WHAT WILL PROBABLY OCCUR
• IT’S A LOT LIKE FLIPPING A COIN – YOU CAN
ESTIMATE YOUR CHANCES OF GETTING HEADS,
BUT REALITY DOESN’T ALWAYS FOLLOW
PROBABILITY