FOT 502: FOOD CHEMISTRY

(CARBOHYDRATES– PHYSICAL,
CHEMICAL, NUTRITIONAL, FUNCTIONAL
PROPERTIES IN FOOD AND THEIR
STRUCTURAL CO-RELATIONS.)

Submitted by:
1. Akhiya Viju Arakkal (11904171)
2. Neegam Nain (11904248)
3. Katoch Gunjan Kumari (11904249)
4. Boddu Revathi (11904256)
5. Farooq Ahmed (11904561)

Submitted to: Dr. Mudasir Yaqoob

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF CARBOHYDRATES

- AKHIYA VIJU
 Carbohydrates are sugars, starches and fibers
 Carbohydrates are composed of atoms of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen.
 They have a general formula Cx(H2O)y.
 They serves as energy.
 There are 3 major classes of carbohydrates.
 Monosaccharide

 Oligosaccharides

 Polysaccharides
MONOSACCHARIDES

 simple sugars,
 crystalline compound.
 soluble in water.
 sweet taste.
 reducing sugars.
 has a single monomer.
 simple, linear, unbranched structure.
 have a relatively lower molecular weight
 They have smaller size
 Example : Glucose, Fructose, Galactose..
DISACCHARIDES

 also known as double sugar or bivore,

 sugar formed when two Monosaccharides are
joined together by glycosidic bonds.
 crystalline compounds
 soluble in water.
 sweet taste.
 Some of the disaccharides are reducing sugars
while others are non reducing sugars.
 They have 2 monomer.
 they are simple, linear unbranched or branched
structures.
 have a relatively larger molecular weight
 They are smaller in size.
 Examples : Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose
POLYSACCHARIDES

 polymeric carbohydrate molecule having long chain of

Monosaccharide unit which are bounded together with
glyosidic bonds
 amorphous compounds.
 Insoluble in water
 do not have a sweet taste.
 non reducing sugars.
 composed of large numbers of monomers. have
complex branched structures.
 relatively larger molecular weight
 Example : Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, Chitin etc.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
OF CARBOHYDRATES

- NEEGAM NAIN
 Monosaccharides possess reactive group
 Polyhydroxy aldehydes
 Polyhydroxy ketones

 Following are the reactions that generally takes place:-

 Oxidation and reduction
 Sugars esters and ethers
 Glycosides
 Browning reactions
1. Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
Monosaccharides have free aldo and keto groups which makes
them vulnerable to reduction reaction in aqueous solution to give
sugar alcohols.
e.g. Reduction Reaction
 D-glucose yields D-gluticol during reduction reaction with
NaBH4 (Sodium borohydrate).
 D-fructose reduces to D-glucitol and D-mannitol in presence of
NaBH4 and H2O at 20-50oC.

 Oxidation reaction
Fehling reagent which is an alkaline solution of cupric oxide
which is reduced cuprous oxide while aldehyde group of an aldose
is oxidised to carboxylic group.
 NOTE:-
All ketoses are not reducing sugars, but some exceptions are there
like fructose.
Fructose is able to reduce Tollen’s agent as it gets efforlessly
isomerised to an aldose form in presence of basic solution by a
series of keto enol tautomeric shifts.
2. Sugar Esters and Ethers

 By treating carbohydrate with acid chloride or acid anhydride

in the presence of base, the hydroxyl groups of carbohydrates is
changed into esters and ethers.
Penta-acetate (penta-O-
acetyl-D-glucopyranose)

Acetic acid/
pyridine solution

D-glucopyranose
 Carbohydrates can be converted into ethers by treating it with
an alkyl halide in the presence of base.
• For example, by reacting D-glucopyranose with iodomethane and
silver oxide, it is converted into pentamethyl ether.

D-glucopyranose
pentamethyl ether

Idomethane/silveroxide

D-glucopyranose
 Esterification is normally carried out by treating of carbohydrate
with acid chloride or acid anhydride in the presence of base.
 Many carbohydrates occur in nature as phosphate-ester
derivatives. D-ribose-5-phosphate is a precursor of RNA
(ribonucleic acid) and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

 Ethers of carbohydrates are not very common in nature; however,

 an internal ether formed between the hydroxyl groups at carbon
atom C-3 and C-6 of D-galactose
 Galactose is a building unit of red seaweed polysaccharides,
such as agar.

 The etherification reaction is also frequently used to chemically

modify natural polysaccharides
 to improve their properties and utilization.
3. Glycosides
 Gycosides are carbohydrates acetals.
 D-glucopyranose is converted to Methyl D-glucopyranoside (an
acetal) in presence of alcohol and hydrochloric acid.

 Carbohydrate acetals can be easily converted back to their

original form by hydrolysis with aqueous acid.
 Glycosides are also occur naturally in plants for example, digitoxin,
ouabain and arbutin. Some other glycosides help in adding flavour
and colour.
 Digitoxin, for example, is an active component of the digitalis
preparations used for treatment of heart disease.
4. Browning Reactions

4.1. Maillard Reaction

• Browning of food usually happened due to the chemical reaction

which occurs in between amino acids and reducing
sugars in the presence of heat which also leads to the new
aroma and flavour
• This is also known as non-enzymatic browning.
• Whereas the browning which occurs in freshly cut fruits and
vegetables at the ambient temperature is known as enzymatic
browning.
4.2. Caramelization
• It is non-enzymatic browning.

• It involves degradation of sugars by heat. It is also referred to

as oxidation of sugars.
• Reducing and non-reducing sugars both are heated in absence of
nitrogen which leads to the formation of a dark brown caramel.
• Caramel is also produced by heating sucrose in presence of
ammonium bisulphite which is used in soft drinks, baked
products.
• It helps in enhancing the flavour and colour of the food.

• Intense heat and low pH leads to bitter, burned and

unpleasant taste in products.
NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES
OF CARBOHYDRATES

- BODDU REVATHI
 Monosaccharides-one sugar unit
eg: Glucose,fructose,galactose
 Disaccharides-Two sugar units
eg: Sucrose,Lactose,Maltose
 Oligosaccharides- Two to ten sugar units
eg: Raffinose, Stachyose
 Polysaccharides- Ten or more sugar units
eg: Starch,cellulose,glycogen
 Polysaccharides are further class
1.Digestable starches
2.Indigestable starches
TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES IN FOOD
 There are about 3 types of carbohydrates in food.
They are:-

1.fiber
2.sugars
3.starch
1.Fiber: There are 2 types of fiber
Dietary fiber
Crude fiber

 Dietary fiber is classified into Soluble and Insoluble fiber.

 Soluble fiber is present in fruits and vegetables,dissolves in water and
helps in gel formation within the intestine and slows down the
passage of food in the intestine and helps in increase in the rate of
absorption of nutrients from the food.

2.Starch: It is a good source of energy and nutients such as B-

vitamins,Calcium and fiber.

 Foods rich in starch include peas,beans,potatoes,bread etc.

 There are about 3 types of starches,they are

1.Rapidly digestible starch- which digest within 20 min.

eg:freshly cooked peas
2.Slowly digestible starch- which takes 20-120min to digest
eg:Raw cereals
3.Resistance starch-Dietary starches resistance to normal
enzymatic actions
 3.Sugars:

 Simple fast acting monosaccharide is GLUCOSE which is

sweet in taste naturally found in fruits, honey etc.
 Glucose however provides us only 18g of energy/day.Only
small quantity of glucose used daily in the body and the
rest is provided by the breakdown of complex carbohydrtes
into simpler forms.
 Naturally occurring sugars-Fructose in fruits Lactose in
milk.
 Added sugars –Added during processing of food
eg:saccharin, aspartame
RECOMMENDED CARBOHYDRATE
INTAKE
 Intake of available carbohydrate that might be ideal to support
the long term health i.e about 50-60% of total k.cal in the body.
 Estimates of minimum amount of carbohydrate needed by an
adult are in the range of 200-250g/day.
 Intake of less than 50g of carbohydrate/day are associated with
adverse health effect like protein breakdown, and weakness.
 KETOSIS-Conditions associated with the mild disturbances of
cellular function and is an early indication of insufficient
carbohydrate availability in the body
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES
CARBOHYDRATE DEFICIENCY
DISEASES
 Hyperglycemia: It is an condition in which excess amount of
glucose circulates in blood plasma
 Galactosuria: Excretion of excess amount of glucose into the urine
due to elevated blood glucose levels most commonly due to
untreated diabetes mellitus.This condition leads to excess loss of
water into urine which result in dehydration and the term is
known as OSMOTIC DIURESIS.
 Pentosuria: Inborn error of carbohydrate metabolism due to excess
urinary excretion of sugar XYLITHOL
 Glactosemia: Rare disorder that effects the bodys ability to
breakdown a food sugar called GALACTOSE due to absence of
enzyme GALT
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF
CARBOHYDRATES IN FOOD

- KATOCH GUNJAN KUMARI

 PLANT POLYSACCHARIDE
1. Cellulose
 Microcrystalline cellulose- is used a bulking agent in modification of
textures of food and can be used to replace fat in emulsion food
products. It can be used as a suspending agent e.g. in chocolate
drinks and adds creaminess to the product. In batter preparation it
improves cling, reduces the drying time and absorption of fats while
frying.
 Carboxymethylcellulose – in the food industry, it can be used as a
thickener, stabilizer and as a suspending agent. During baking, it
is used to increase the bread size by stabilizing the gas produced. It
is used as an inhibitor of ice crystal growth in ice-creams (soft
serve) and frozen desserts.
 Methylcellulose and its derivatives- used as stabilizers and
emulsifiers in salad dressing, low oil or no oil. It is also used in fried
foods to reduce the absorption of oil. It is used in the bakery
industry to avoid boil-over of the fillings of the pastry and to help in
retention of the gas during baking.
2. Hemicellulose
 Galactomannans- Majorly used as a stabilizer and thickening agent
and it has an approximate of less than 1% of the food weight. They
have been used to increase the shelf life and used to avoid creaming
and settling of oil in salad dressing. Can also be used to improve the
freeze thaw ability of the frozen foods. In Bakeries, it is used to
decrease the level of starch retrogradation and enhances texture
and shelf life.
 Xyloglucans- in products with reduced calories, it has been used to
replace starch
 Arabinoxylans- (from wheat and rye) they are crucial ingredients in
baking products and affect the water binding property, starch
retrogradation and dough rheology properties.
 Cereal β-D- glucan- Mostly two based on commercial availability;
oatrim and glucagel. Oatrim is used mainly in baked products,
processed meat products, frozen desserts, beverages and in sauces.
It can also be used as a fat replacer. Glucagel is used to substitute
fat in the bakery, dairy product manufacture and manufacture of
edible films.
3. Pectin
They are water soluble and it is majorly used as gelling agents in
dairy and bakery products. It is used in acidified dairy products as
a protein dispersion stabilizer e.g. in yogurt.

4. Fructans
These are reserve polysaccharides in plants that may balance with
starch or completely replace starch. These polysaccharides are
dietary fibres and add to the bulk of food in the intestines.
SEAWEED POLYSACCHARIDES

1. Alginates

 Structural primary polysaccharide in brown sea weed

 Alginates in the presence of calcium ions are able to form
thermally stable cold setting gels. Products such as artificial
berries, onion rings, cold water dessert gels have been prepared.
 The alginates have been used as emulsifiers and stabilizers
industrially.
2. Carrageenan

 These are structural polysaccharide in the marine red algae.

 These polysaccharides are utilized as gelling agents,
suspending elements and also as thickeners.
 used in ice cream production as a second stabilizer to avoid
phase separation and in cooked meat as a water binder.
MICROBIAL POLYSACCHARIDE

Pullulan

 This is an extracellular homopolysaccharide of glucose

commonly found in fungus
 Pullulan forms viscous solutions (not gels) and is party broken
down by salivary α- amylase.
 Its major application is in the sauces and other food systems.
 Because of its low digestibility, it is used to replace starches in
low calorie diets.
 It can also be used as a coating substance to make the food
surface glossy.
ANIMAL SOURCES

 Chitin and Chitosan

 Both the polysaccharides have distinct thermal and gelling

properties that is mainly used in food industries.
 used as a dietary fibre.
STRUCTURAL CO-RELATIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATES

- FAROOQ AHMED
 Carbohydrates are molecular compound made from just
three elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Monosaccharides and disaccharides are quite small
molecules.
 They are often called sugars. Other carbohydrate
molecules are actual big.
 There are mainly two type of carbohydrates:-
1. Simple carbohydrate
2. Complex carbohydrate
 SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATE
 Simple carbohydrates have a molecular structure and are made
of 1 or 2 sugar molecules. Simple carbs can be absorbed very
rapidly due to their simple structures, and tend to uplift the
blood sugar rapidly.
 These carbs offer fast energy, they need to be used up in control
to prevent swift swings in blood sugar.
 They rise the storage of fats which is not burned or consumed
can lead to the obesity and other health problems.
 Simple carbohydrate divided into two type:-
1. Monosaccharide
2. disaccharide
 MONOSACCHARIDE
 These are the basic compounds with
cyclic structures containing of
hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen in the
proportion of 1:2:1.
 Some hydroxyls and one carbonyl group
alter these hydrocarbon chain to form a
monosaccharide.
 Sugars with a carbonyl group joint to a
carbon at termination of the chain is
aldose such as glucose.
 When a carbonyl group are located
anyplace other than the termination of
the carbon chain, the monosaccharide
are ketose such as fructose.
 The -OH group of second last carbon
atom is written on the left side of the
skeleton structure for the L isomer and
on the right for the D isomer.
 DISACCHARIDE
 Disaccharide hold two sugar molecules.
Ideally, they come under oligosaccharide since
oligosaccharide cover 2 to 10 sugar molecules.
 These is made when two monosaccharide
react and a condensation reaction take place
and the releasing of water molecule.
 A glyosidic bond forms and grips the two
monosaccharides unit together.
 The three most common disaccharides
are lactose, maltose, and sucrose.
1. α-lactose are made up of β-galactose + α-
glucose.
2. β- lactose are made up of β-glucose + β-
galactose.
3. Sucrose are made up of α-fructose + α-glucose.
4. Maltose are made up of α-glucose + α-glucose.
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE

 Complex carbohydrate is made up of long chain of sugar

molecule.
 These take long time to breakdown into their fundamental
forms and it requires more time for absorption compared to
simple carbohydrate.
 This slow the break down process and therefore, supplies us
with continual energy for the long duration.
 Mainly complex carbohydrate has one type:-
1. Polysaccharide
 POLYSACCHARIDE
 Monosaccharide can experience a sequence of condensation
reaction, addition of one unit after another to the chain till very
large molecules polysaccharides are formed.
 Polysaccharide are admirable energy storage molecule for the
reason that they are easily built and broken-down by enzyme.
 polysaccharide forms strong fibres that gives protection and
structural support in both plant and animal
 Polysaccharides are mainly three type:-
1. Starch
2. Fibers
3. Glycogen
 STARCH
 Starch are the form of carbohydrate that is made-up of long and
complex chain of modest sugar.
 Starch must be broken-down through digestion before your
body will use it as a glucose source.
 They are not complex for very long time, the starchiest food is
quickly broken-down into sugar
 It exists in two forms amylopectin and amylose.
 Amylose is unbranched polymer of α-glucose, amylopectin are
the branched polymer of α-glucose.
 FIBERS
 These are the indigestible food that cannot be broken-
down into sugar.
 They are low in calorie, and support to perform the
digestion process easily, they as well support to regulate
the blood glucose levels.
 All grain and many vegetables, and fruit together with
dark leafy greens and orange-coloured vegetable, and
fruit are rich in fibers.
 Cellulose is a third polymer made-up of β-glucose.
 GLYCOGEN
 Glycogen are amylopectin with very short space among the
branching side-chains.
 Glucose permits into cell and is used in metabolism.
 Inside the cell, glucose can be polymerised towards making
of glycogen which act as a carbohydrate energy store.
THANK YOU FOR
YOUR PATIENCE.