Introduction to

DC Machine
by
Dr. Shubhobrata Rudra
 Contents
– Basic Laws of Electromagnetism
– Overview of Direct Current Machines
– Construction
– Principle of Operation
– Types of DC Machine
– Power Flow Diagram
– Speed Control
Maxwell’s Cork screw Rule :
Maxwell’s Cork screw Rule :
Hold the cork screw in yr right
hand and rotate it in clockwise
in such a way that it advances in
the direction of current. Then
the direction in which the hand
rotates will be the direction of
magnetic lines of force .
Fleming’s left hand rule
Fleming’s left hand rule
Used to determine the direction of force acting
on a current carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field .
The middle finger , the fore finger and thumb of
the left hand are kept at right angles to one
another .
The middle finger represent the direction
of current
The fore finger represent the direction of
magnetic field
The thumb will indicate the direction of
force acting on the conductor .
This rule is used in motors.
Fleming’s Right hand rule
 Fleming’s Right hand rule
Used to determine the direction of emf induced
in a conductor
The middle finger , the fore finger and thumb of
the left hand are kept at right angles to one
another.
The fore finger represent the direction
of magnetic field
The thumb represent the direction of
motion of the conductor
The middle finger will indicate the
direction of the inducted emf .
This rule is used in DC Generators
 Len’s Law
The direction of induced emf is given by
Lenz’s law .
According to this law, the induced emf will
be acting in such a way so as to oppose the
very cause of production of it .

e = -N (dØ/dt) volts
 Overview of Direct Current
Machines
• Direct-current (DC) machines are divided into dc generators and dc
motors.
• Most DC machines are similar to AC machines: i.e. they have AC
voltages and current within them.
• DC machines have DC outputs just because they have a
mechanism converting AC voltages to DC voltages at their
terminals.
• This mechanism is called a commutator; therefore, DC machines
are also called commutating machines.
• DC generators are not as common as they used to be, because
direct current, when required, is mainly produced by electronic
rectifiers.
• While dc motors are widely used, such automobile, aircraft, and
portable electronics, in speed control applications…
 DC Generator
• A dc generator is a machine that converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy
(dc voltage and current) by using the
principle of magnetic induction.

• In this example, the ends of the wire loop

have been connected to two slip rings
mounted on the shaft, while brushes are
used to carry the current from the loop to
the outside of the circuit.

Principle of magnetic induction in DC machine

 DC Motor
• DC motors are everywhere! In a house, almost every mechanical
movement that you see around you is caused by an DC (direct
current) motor, (except ceiling fan).

• An dc motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into

mechanical energy by supplying a dc power (voltage and current).

• An advantage of DC motors is that it is easy to control their speed in

a wide range.
 Construction of DC machine

Cutaway view of a dc motor Stator with poles visible.

Construction of DC machine
segments

Rotor of a dc motor.

brushes
Construction of DC machine
Rotor is the rotating part - armature
Stator is the stationary part - field

Armature coil

Brushes

Stator: non-moving coil

Rotor: rotating part
 ARMATURE
• More loops of wire = higher rectified voltage
• In practical, loops are generally placed in slots of an iron core
• The iron acts as a magnetic conductor by providing a low-reluctance path for
magnetic lines of flux to increase the inductance of the loops and provide a
higher induced voltage.
• The commutator is connected to the slotted iron core.
• The entire assembly of iron core, commutator, and windings is called the
armature.
• The windings of armatures are connected in different ways depending on the
requirements of the machine.

Loops of wire are wound around slot in a metal core DC machine armature
 ARMATURE WINDINGS
• Lap Wound Armatures
– are used in machines designed for low voltage and high current
– armatures are constructed with large wire because of high current
– Eg: - are used is in the starter motor of almost all automobiles
– The windings of a lap wound armature are connected in parallel.
This permits the current capacity of each winding to be added and
provides a higher operating current
– No of current path, C=2p ; p=no of poles
 ARMATURE WINDINGS (Cont)
• Wave Wound Armatures
– are used in machines designed for high voltage and low current
– their windings connected in series
– When the windings are connected in series, the voltage of each
winding adds, but the current capacity remains the same
– are used is in the small generator in hand-cranked megohmmeters
– No of current path, C=2
 ARMATURE WINDINGS (Cont)
• Frogleg Wound Armatures
– the most used in practical nowadays
– designed for use with moderate current and moderate
armatures voltage
– the windings are connected in series parallel.
– Most large DC machines use frogleg wound armatures.

Frogleg wound armatures

 FIELD WINDINGS
• Most DC machines use wound electromagnets to
provide the magnetic field.

• Two types of field windings are used :

– series field
– shunt field
 FIELD WINDINGS (Cont)
• Series field windings
– are so named because they are connected in series with the
armature
– are made with relatively few windings turns of very large wire and
have a very low resistance
– usually found in large horsepower machines wound with square or
rectangular wire.
– The use of square wire permits the windings to be laid closer
together, which increases the number of turns that can be wound in
a particular space
 FIELD WINDINGS (Cont)
– Square and rectangular wire can also be made physically smaller than
round wire and still contain the same surface area

Square wire contains more surface than round wire

Square wire permits more turns than round wire in the same area
 FIELD WINDINGS (Cont)
• Shunt field windings
– is constructed with relatively many turns of small wire, thus, it
has a much higher resistance than the series field.
– is intended to be connected in parallel with, or shunt, the
armature.
– high resistance is used to limit current flow through the field.
 FIELD WINDINGS (Cont)
• When a DC machine uses both series and shunt fields, each pole
piece will contain both windings.

• The windings are wound on the pole pieces in such a manner that
when current flows through the winding it will produce alternate
magnetic polarities.
 MACHINE WINDINGS
OVERVIEW

Winding

armature field

Self excited Separately

Excited
Wave Lap Frogleg
C=2 C=2p

series shunt compound

Principle operation of Generator
• Whenever a conductor is moved within a
magnetic field in such a way that the conductor
cuts across magnetic lines of flux, voltage is
generated in the conductor.
• The AMOUNT of voltage generated depends on:
i. the strength of the magnetic field,
ii. the angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic
field,
iii. the speed at which the conductor is moved, and
iv. the length of the conductor within the magnetic field
Principle of operation (Cont)
 Fleming’s Right hand rule
(Generator Rule)
• Use: To determine the direction of the induced emf/current of a
conductor moving in a magnetic field.
• The POLARITY of the voltage depends on the direction of the
magnetic lines of flux and the direction of movement of the
conductor.
 THE ELEMENTARY
GENERATOR
• The simplest elementary generator that can be
built is an ac generator.
• Basic generating principles are most easily
explained through the use of the elementary ac
generator.
• For this reason, the ac generator will be
discussed first. The dc generator will be
discussed later.
• An elementary generator consists of a wire loop
mounted on the shaft, so that it can be rotated in
a stationary magnetic field.
• This will produce an induced emf in the loop.
• Sliding contacts (brushes) connect the loop to an Elementary Generator
external circuit load in order to pick up or use the
induced emf.
 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (Cont)

• The pole pieces (marked N and S) provide the magnetic field. The
pole pieces are shaped and positioned as shown to concentrate the
magnetic field as close as possible to the wire loop.

• The loop of wire that rotates through the field is called the
ARMATURE. The ends of the armature loop are connected to rings
called SLIP RINGS. They rotate with the armature.

• The brushes, usually made of carbon, with wires attached to them,

ride against the rings. The generated voltage appears across these
brushes. (These brushes transfer power from the battery to the
commutator as the motor spins – discussed later in dc elementary
generator).
 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (A)

• An end view of the shaft and wire

loop is shown.
• At this particular instant, the loop of
wire (the black and white conductors
of the loop) is parallel to the
magnetic lines of flux, and no cutting
action is taking place.
• Since the lines of flux are not being
cut by the loop, no emf is induced in
the conductors, and the meter at this
position indicates zero.
• This position is called the NEUTRAL
PLANE.
00 Position (Neutral Plane)
 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (B)
• The shaft has been turned 900 clockwise, the
conductors cut through more and more lines of
flux, and voltage is induced in the conductor.
• at a continually increasing angle , the induced
emf in the conductors builds up from zero to a
maximum value or peak value.
• Observe that from 00 to 900, the black
conductor cuts DOWN through the field.
• At the same time the white conductor cuts UP
through the field.
• The induced emfs in the conductors are series-
adding.
• This means the resultant voltage across the
brushes (the terminal voltage) is the sum of the
900 Position
two induced voltages.
• The meter at position B reads maximum value.
 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (C)

• After another 900 of rotation, the loop

has completed 1800 of rotation and is
again parallel to the lines of flux.
• As the loop was turned, the voltage
decreased until it again reached zero.
• Note that : From 00 to 1800 the
conductors of the armature loop have
been moving in the same direction
through the magnetic field.
• Therefore, the polarity of the induced
voltage has remained the same
1800 Position
 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (D)
• As the loop continues to turn, the
conductors again cut the lines of magnetic
flux.
• This time, however, the conductor that
previously cut through the flux lines of the
south magnetic field is cutting the lines of
the north magnetic field, and vice-versa.
• Since the conductors are cutting the flux
lines of opposite magnetic polarity, the
polarity of the induced voltage reverses.
• After 270' of rotation, the loop has rotated to
the position shown, and the maximum
terminal voltage will be the same as it was
from A to C except that the polarity is
reversed. 2700 Position
 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (A)

• After another 900 of rotation, the loop

has completed one rotation of 3600
and returned to its starting position.
• The voltage decreased from its
negative peak back to zero.
• Notice that the voltage produced in the
armature is an alternating polarity. The
voltage produced in all rotating
armatures is alternating voltage.

3600 Position
Elementary Generator (Conclusion)
• Observes
– The meter direction
– The conductors of the armature loop
– Direction of the current flow
 THE ELEMENTARY DC GENERATOR

• Since DC generators must produce DC current

instead of AC current, a device must be used to
change the AC voltage produced in the armature
windings into DC voltage.
• This job is performed by the commutator.
• The commutator is constructed from a copper
ring split into segments with insulating material
between the segments (See next page).
• Brushes riding against the commutator
segments carry the power to the outside circuit.
• The commutator in a dc generator replaces the
slip rings of the ac generator. This is the main
difference in their construction.
• The commutator mechanically reverses the
armature loop connections to the external circuit.
 THE ELEMENTARY DC GENERATOR
(Armature)
• The armature has an axle, and the commutator
is attached to the axle.
• In the diagram to the right, you can see three
different views of the same armature: front,
side and end-on.

• In the end-on view, the winding is eliminated to

make the commutator more obvious.
• We can see that the commutator is simply a
pair of plates attached to the axle.
• These plates provide the two connections for
the coil of the electromagnet.
Armature with commutator view
 THE ELEMENTARY DC GENERATOR
(Commutator & Brushes work together)
• The diagram at the right shows how the commutator and
brushes work together to let current flow to the
electromagnet, and also to flip the direction that the
electrons are flowing at just the right moment.
• The contacts of the commutator are attached to the axle
of the electromagnet, so they spin with the magnet.
• The brushes are just two pieces of springy metal or
carbon that make contact with the contacts of the
commutator.
• Through this process the commutator changes the
generated ac voltage to a pulsating dc voltage which also
known as commutation process.

Brushes and commutator

 THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR

• The loop is parallel to the magnetic

lines of flux, and no voltage is
induced in the loop
• Note that the brushes make
contact with both of the
commutator segments at this time.
The position is called neutral
plane.

00 Position (DC Neutral Plane)

 THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR
• As the loop rotates, the conductors
begin to cut through the magnetic lines
of flux.
• The conductor cutting through the
south magnetic field is connected to
the positive brush, and the conductor
cutting through the north magnetic field
is connected to the negative brush.
• Since the loop is cutting lines of flux, a
voltage is induced into the loop.
• After 900 of rotation, the voltage
reaches its most positive point. 900 Position (DC)
 THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR
• As the loop continues to rotate,
the voltage decreases to zero.

• After 1800 of rotation, the

conductors are again parallel to
the lines of flux, and no voltage is
induced in the loop.

• Note that the brushes again make

contact with both segments of the
commutator at the time when
there is no induced voltage in the
1800 Position (DC)
conductors
 THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR
• During the next 900 of rotation, the conductors
again cut through the magnetic lines of flux.
• This time, however, the conductor that previously
cut through the south magnetic field is now cutting
the flux lines of the north field, and vice-versa. .
• Since these conductors are cutting the lines of flux
of opposite magnetic polarities, the polarity of
induced voltage is different for each of the
conductors. The commutator, however, maintains
the correct polarity to each brush.
• The conductor cutting through the north magnetic
field will always be connected to the negative brush,
and the conductor cutting through the south field
will always be connected to the positive brush.
• Since the polarity at the brushes has remained 2700 Position (DC)
constant, the voltage will increase to its peak value
in the same direction.
 THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR
• As the loop continues to rotate, the
induced voltage again decreases to zero
when the conductors become parallel to
the magnetic lines of flux.

• Notice that during this 3600 rotation of the

loop the polarity of voltage remained the
same for both halves of the waveform.
This is called rectified DC voltage.

• The voltage is pulsating. It does turn on

and off, but it never reverses polarity.
00 Position (DC Neutral Plane)
Since the polarity for each brush remains
constant, the output voltage is DC.
 THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR
• Observes
– The meter direction
– The conductors of the armature loop
– Direction of the current flow
 Effects of additional turns
• To increase the amount of output voltage, it is
common practice to increase the number of
turns of wire for each loop.
• If a loop contains 20 turns of wire, the induced
voltage will be 20 times greater than that for a
single-loop conductor.
• The reason for this is that each loop is
connected in series with the other loops. Since
the loops form a series path, the voltage
induced in the loops will add.
• In this example, if each loop has an induced
voltage of 2V, the total voltage for this winding
would be 40V
(2V x 20 loops = 40 V).

Effects of additional turns

 Effects of additional coils
• When more than one loop is used, the average
output voltage is higher and there is less
pulsation of the rectified voltage.
• Since there are four segments in the
commutator, a new segment passes each
brush every 900 instead of every 1800.
• Since there are now four commutator
segments in the commutator and only two
brushes, the voltage cannot fall any lower
than at point A.
• Therefore, the ripple is limited to the rise and
fall between points A and B on the graph. By
adding more armature coils, the ripple effect
can be further reduced. Decreasing ripple in
this way increases the effective voltage of
the output.
Effects of additional coils
 The Practical DC Generator
• The actual construction and operation of a practical
dc generator differs somewhat from our elementary
generators
• Nearly all practical generators use electromagnetic
poles instead of the permanent magnets used in our
elementary generator
• The main advantages of using electromagnetic
poles are:
(1) increased field strength and
(2) possible to control the strength of the
fields. By varying the input voltage, the
field strength is varied. By varying the field
strength, the output voltage of the generator
can be controlled.

Four-pole generator (without armature)

 EMF equation
Let,
Ø= flux per pole in weber
Z = Total number of conductor
P = Number of poles
A = Number of parallel paths
N =armature speed in rpm
Eg = emf generated in any on of the
parallel path
 EMF equation
Flux cut by 1 conductor
in 1 revolution =P*φ
Flux cut by 1 conductor in
60 sec = P φ N /60
Avg emf generated in 1
conductor = PφN/60
Number of conductors in
each parallel path = Z /A

Eg = PφNZ/60A
 Types of DC Generator
DC generators are generally classified
according to their method of
excitation .

Separately excited DC generator

Self excited D C generator

Further classification of DC Generator
Series wound generator
Shunt wound generator
Compound wound generator
Short shunt & Long shunt
Cumulatively compound
&
Differentially compound
 Characteristics
No load saturation characteristic
(Eo/If)

Internal or Total characteristic (E/ Ia)

External characteristic (V/I)

 Critical field resistance
For appreciable generation of emf, the
field resistance must be always less
certain resistance, that resistance is
called as the critical resistance of the
machine .
 Losses in DC Generators
1. Copper losses or variable losses
2. Stray losses or constant losses
Stray losses : consist of (a) iron losses or core
losses and (b) windage and friction losses .
Iron losses : occurs in the core of the machine
due to change of magnetic flux in the core .
Consist of hysteresis loss and eddy current
loss.
Hysteresis loss depends upon the frequency ,
Flux density , volume and type of the core .
 Losses
Hysteresis loss depends upon the frequency ,
Flux density , volume and type of the core .

Eddy current losses : directly proportional to

the flux density , frequency , thickness of the
lamination .
Windage and friction losses are constant due to
the opposition of wind and friction .
Applications

Shunt Generators:
a. in electro plating
b. for battery recharging
c. as exciters for AC generators.
Series Generators :
A. As boosters
B. As lighting arc lamps
 DC Motor Operation
• In a dc motor, the stator
poles are supplied by dc
excitation current, which
produces a dc magnetic
field.
• The rotor is supplied by dc
current through the
brushes, commutator and
coils.
• The interaction of the
magnetic field and rotor
current generates a force
that drives the motor
 DC Motor Operation
• The magnetic field lines enter v B
into the rotor from the north
a

pole (N) and exit toward the S 1

30
N Vdc
south pole (S). 2

• The poles generate a

b

v
magnetic field that is Ir_dc
perpendicular to the current (a) Rotor current flow from segment 1 to 2 (slot a to b)
carrying conductors.
B
• The interaction between the
field and the current produces
a

a Lorentz force, S N

2
v 30 v Vdc

1
• The force is perpendicular to b

both the magnetic field and

conductor Ir_dc

(b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1 (slot b to a)

 DC Motor Operation
• The generated force turns the v
a
B

rotor until the coil reaches the 1

S N
neutral point between the poles. 30
2
Vdc
• At this point, the magnetic field b
becomes practically zero together v
with the force. Ir_dc
• However, inertia drives the motor (a) Rotor current flow from segment 1 to 2 (slot a to b)
beyond the neutral zone where the B
direction of the magnetic field a
reverses.
S N
• To avoid the reversal of the force

2
v 30 v Vdc

1
direction, the commutator changes b

the current direction, which

maintains the counterclockwise Ir_dc
rotation. (b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1 (slot b to a)
 DC Motor Operation
• Before reaching the neutral zone, v
a
B

the current enters in segment 1

1
and exits from segment 2, S 30
2
N Vdc
• Therefore, current enters the coil b
end at slot a and exits from slot v
b during this stage. Ir_dc
• After passing the neutral zone, (a) Rotor current flow from segment 1 to 2 (slot a to b)
the current enters segment 2 and
B
exits from segment 1,
a
• This reverses the current
direction through the rotor coil, S N

2
v 30 v Vdc
when the coil passes the neutral

1
zone. b

• The result of this current reversal Ir_dc

is the maintenance of the (b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1 (slot b to a)
rotation.
DC Machine Equivalent Circuit
DC Machine Equivalent Circuit

• The magnetic field produced by the stator poles induces a

voltage in the rotor (or armature) coils when the generator
is rotated.
• This induced voltage is represented by a voltage source.
• The stator coil has resistance, which is connected in
series.
• The pole flux is produced by the DC excitation/field
current, which is magnetically coupled to the rotor
• The field circuit has resistance and a source
• The voltage drop on the brushes represented by a battery
DC Machine Equivalent Circuit

1. Permanent magnet
2. Separately excited
3. Self-excited
DC Machine Equivalent Circuit

1. Permanent magnet
• The poles are made of permanent magnets.
• No field winding required.
• Small size.
• Disadvantage is low flux density, so low torque.
DC Machine Equivalent Circuit

2. Separately excited
The field flux is derived from a separate power source
independent of the generator itself.

B
Armature
Field winding
winding
DC Machine Equivalent Circuit
3. Self-excited
• Shunt machine
The field flux is derived by
connecting the field directly
across the terminals of the
generator.

B
DC Machine Equivalent Circuit
3. Self-excited
Series machine
• field are connected in
series with armature

B
DC Machine Equivalent Circuit
3. Self-excited
• Cumulatively compounded

B B

• Differentially compounded

B B
DC Machine Equivalent Circuit
3. Self-excited

Compounded dc generator
• both a shunt and a series field are
present
 DC Machine Equivalent Circuit
3. Self-excited
Compounded dc motor
• both a shunt and a series
field are present
 Equivalent circuit of a DC
motor
The armature circuit (the entire
rotor structure) is represented by
an ideal voltage source EA and a
resistor RA. A battery Vbrush in the
opposite to a current flow in the
machine direction indicates brush
voltage drop.
The field coils producing the
magnetic flux are represented by
inductor LF and resistor RF. The
resistor Radj represents an
external variable resistor
(sometimes lumped together with
the field coil resistance) used to
control the amount of current in
the field circuit.
DC Motor Equivalent Circuit.
 The armature is represented by an ideal voltage source EA and a
resistor RA.
 The brush voltage drop is represented by a small battery Vbrush
opposing the direction of the current flow in the machine.
 The field coils, which produce the magnetic flux, are represented
by inductor LF and RF.
 The separate resistor Radj represents an external variable resistor
used to control the amount of current in the field circuit.

Equivalent Circuit of a DC Motor.

 The brush drop voltage is often only a very tiny fraction of the
generated voltage in the motor.
 Therefore, in cases where it is not critical, the brush drop voltage
may be left out or approximately included in the value of RA.
 Also, the internal resistance of the filed coils is sometimes lumped
together with the variable resistor, and the total is called RF , Figure
below.

A Simplified Equivalent Circuit eliminating the Brush Voltage

Drop and Combining Radj with the Field Resistance .
Motor types: Separately Excited DC motors.

Separately excited DC motor:

a field circuit is supplied from a
separate constant voltage power
source.

The Equivalent Circuit of Separately Excited dc Motor.

From the above figure,

VF
IF  VT  E A  I A RA
RF
IL  IA
Motor types: Shunt DC motors.

Shunt DC motor:
a field circuit gets its power from the
armature terminals of the motor.

The Equivalent Circuit of a Shunt dc Motor.

 From the above figure,

VF
IF 
RF
VT  E A  I A RA

IL  IA  IF
Motor types: The permanent-magnet
DC motor
A permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motor is a motor whose poles are
made out of permanent magnets.
Advantages:
1. Since no external field circuit is needed, there are no field circuit copper
losses;
2. Since no field windings are needed, these motors can be considerable
smaller.
Disadvantages:
1. Since permanent magnets produces weaker flux
densities then externally supported shunt fields,
such motors have lower induced torque.
2. There is always a risk of demagnetization from
extensive heating or from armature reaction
effects (via armature mmf).
 Motor types: The series DC
motor
A series DC motor is a DC motor whose field windings consists of a
relatively few turns connected in series with armature circuit. Therefore:

VT  E A  I A RA  RS 
 Motor types: Compounded DC
motor
A compounded DC motor is a motor with both a shunt and a series field.

Current flowing into a dotted

end of a coil (shunt or
series) produces a positive
mmf. Long-shunt
connection
If current flows into the
dotted ends of both coils, the
resulting mmfs add to
produce a larger total mmf –
cumulative compounding.

If current flows into the dotted end of

one coil and out of the dotted end of Short-shunt
another coil, the resulting mmfs connection
subtract – differential compounding.
 Motor types: Compounded DC
motor
The Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation for a compounded DC motor is
VT  E A  I A RA  RS  (5.85.1)

The currents in a compounded DC motor are

VT
I A  IL  IF IF  (5.85.2)

RF
(5.85.3)

Cumulatively compounded
The mmf of a compounded DC motor:

Fnet  FF  FSE  FAR (5.85.4)

Differentially compounded
The effective shunt field current in a compounded DC motor:

N SE FAR
I  IF 
*
F IA  (5.85.5)
NF NF Number of turns
Torque Equation

T  k AI A

T = torque of armature (N-m)

kA = geometry constant
= flux/pole (Wb)
IA = armature current (A)
Geometry Constant

pN pN
kA  (rad / s ), k A 
'
(rpm)
2M 60 M
p = number of field poles
N = number of active conductors on armature
M = number of parallel paths in armature winding (=p for
lap winding, =2 for wave winding)
Power Equation

P  EI A  T
P=power (W) – not counting losses
E = EMF induced in armature (back EMF)
IA = armature current (A)
T = torque of armature (N-m)
 = speed of rotation (rad/s)
Note that Pin = VLIL which will be higher than P
because of loss in the field and armature windings as
well as rotational (friction) losses.
EMF Equation

E  k A  k n '
A n
60
2

E = EMF induced in armature (V)

kA = geometry constant
= flux/pole (Wb)
 = speed of rotation (rad/s)
n = speed of rotation of armature (rpm)
Terminal Voltage Equation
RA

+ +

E VT

-
-
VT  E  I A RA

VT = voltage at motor terminals

E = EMF induced in armature (V)
IA = armature current (A)
RA = armature resistance
Speed Equation

VT  I A R A
n
k A' 
(applies to shunt connected motor only)
Note that  can also be written as kfIf where kf is
/If (normally a constant ratio)

Ratio Equation n2 E 2

n1 E1
 Speed-Torque
Speed

Differential Compound

Shunt
Cumulative Compound

Series
Torque
 Power flow and losses in DC
machines
Unfortunately, not all electrical power is converted to mechanical power by a motor
and not all mechanical power is converted to electrical power by a generator…

The efficiency of a DC machine is:

Pout
 x100%
Pin
or
Pin  Ploss
 x100%
Pin
 The losses in DC machines
There are five categories of losses occurring in DC machines.

1. Electrical or copper losses – the resistive losses in the armature and field
windings of the machine.

Armature loss: PA  I A2 RA
Field loss: PF  I RF2
F

Where IA and IF are armature and field currents and RA and RF are armature and
field (winding) resistances usually measured at normal operating temperature.
 The losses in DC machines
2. Brush (drop) losses – the power lost across the contact potential at the
brushes of the machine.
PBD  VBD I A

Where IA is the armature current and VBD is the brush voltage drop. The voltage
drop across the set of brushes is approximately constant over a large range of
armature currents and it is usually assumed to be about 2 V.

Other losses are exactly the same as in AC machines…

 The losses in DC machines

3. Core losses – hysteresis losses and eddy current losses. They vary as B2
(square of flux density) and as n1.5 (speed of rotation of the magnetic field).

4. Mechanical losses – losses associated with mechanical effects: friction

(friction of the bearings) and windage (friction between the moving parts of the
machine and the air inside the casing). These losses vary as the cube of rotation
speed n3.

5. Stray (Miscellaneous) losses – losses that cannot be classified in any of the

previous categories. They are usually due to inaccuracies in modeling. For many
machines, stray losses are assumed as 1% of full load.
 The power-flow diagram
On of the most convenient technique to account for power losses in a
machine is the power-flow diagram.

For a DC
motor:

Electrical power is input to the machine, and the electrical and brush losses must be
subtracted. The remaining power is ideally converted from electrical to mechanical
form at the point labeled as Pconv.
 The power-flow diagram
The electrical power that is converted is

Pconv  E A I A
And the resulting mechanical power is

Pconv   indm
After the power is converted to mechanical form, the stray losses, mechanical
losses, and core losses are subtracted, and the remaining mechanical power is
output to the load.
 Example 1
A 6 pole, 3.0 hp 120V DC lap-wound shunt motor has 960 conductors
in the armature. It takes 25.0 A from the supply at full load.
Armature resistance is 0.75, flux/pole=10.0 mWb, field winding
current is 1.20A. Find the speed and torque.

E  K A
 746W 
P  3hp 
E 102V
  2.24kW    66.9rad / s
 hp  
K A 153 10 x10 3

I A  I L  I F  25 A 1.2 A  23.8 A  60 
n      638rpm
 2 
E  VT  I A RA  120V  23.8 A0.75  102V
P 2.24kW
KA 
pN

6960  153 T   33.5 N  m
 66.9rad / s
2M 2 6
 Example 2
A 10hp, 115V Dc series motor takes 40A at its full load speed of
1800rpm. What is the torque at 30A?

2n 2 1800 T  K AI A  K A K F I F I A

   188rad / s
60 60
IF  I A
 746W 
P  10hp    7.46kW T  K AKF I A
2

 hp 
T 39.6 N  m
K AKF    0.025
P  T IA
2
40 A 2

P 7.46kW
T   39.6 N  m Tnew  K A K F I Anew  0.02530 A  22.2 N  m
2 2
 188rad / s
 Example 3 (a)
A 220V DC shunt motor draws 10A at 1800rpm. The armature
resistance is 0.2 and field winding resistance is 440.
(a) What is the torque?

VT 220V
IF    0.5 A
RF 440 2n 2 1800
   188rad / s
60 60
I A  I L  I F  10 A  0.5 A  9.5 A P 2.07kW
T   11.0 N  m
 188rad / s
E  VT  I A RA  220V  9.5 A0.2  218V

P  EI A  218V 9.5 A  2.07kW

 Example 3 (b)
A 220V DC shunt motor draws 10A at 1800rpm. The armature
resistance is 0.2 and field winding resistance is 440.
(b) What will be the speed and line current at a torque of 20 N-m (if
field current is constant)?

E  K A I L  I A  I F  17.3A  0.5 A  17.8 A

K A 
E

218V
 1.16 E  VT  I A RA  220V  17.30.2  217V
 188rad / s
E 217V
   187rad / s
T  K AI A K A 1.16
T 20 N  m 60
IA    17.3 A n  1.79 x103 rpm
K A 1.16 2

(shunt is constant speed)

 Commutation of the Rotating Loop
• Commutation in a Simple
Four-Loop DC Machine
• Commutation is the
process of converting the
ac voltages and currents
in the rotor of a dc
machine to dc voltages
and currents at its
terminals
• A simple 4 loop, 2 pole
dc machine is shown
here 
 Commutation of the Rotating Loop
• This machine has 4 complete loops buried in
slots carved in the laminated steel of its rotor
• The pole faces of the machine are curved to
provide a uniform air-gap width and to give a
uniform flux density everywhere under the faces
• The 4 loops of this machine are laid into the
slots in a special manner
• The “unprimed” end of each loop is the
outermost wire in each slot, while the “primed”
end of each loop is the innermost wire in the
slot directly opposite
 Commutation of the Rotating Loop

• A winding Diagram showing interconnections of

rotor loops
 Commutation of the Rotating Loop
• The winding’s connections to the machine’s
commutator are shown below:

• Note : loop 1 stretches between commutator

segments a and b, loop 2 stretches between
segments b and c, and so forth around the rotor
 Commutation of the Rotating Loop
• At the instant shown in figure (a), the 1, 2, 3’ and 4’
ends of the loops are under the north pole face, while
the 1’, 2’, 3 and 4 ends of the loops are under the
south pole face
• The voltage in each of the 1, 2, 3’ and 4’ ends of the
loops is given by
eind = (v x B) l
eind = vBl (positive out of page)
• The voltage in each of the 1’, 2’, 3 and 4 ends of the
loops is given by
eind = (v x B) l
eind = vBl (positive into the page)
 Commutation of the Rotating Loop
• The overall result is shown in figure (b)
• Each coil represents one side (or conductor) of
a loop
• If the induced voltage on any one side of a loop
is called e=vBl,
then the total voltage at the brushes of the
machine is E = 4e (ωt=0°)
• Note: there are two parallel paths for current
through the machine
• The existence of two or more parallel paths for
rotor current is a common feature of all
commutation schemes
 Commutation of the Rotating Loop
• What happens to the voltage E of the terminals as
the rotor continues to rotate
• figure shows the machine at time ωt=45°
• At that time, loops 1 and 3 have rotated into the gap
between the poles, so the voltage across each of
them is zero
 Commutation of the Rotating Loop
• Note: at this instant the brushes of the machine
are shorting out commutator segments ab and
cd
• This happens just at the time when the loops
between these segments have 0 V across
them, so shorting out the segments creates no
problem
• At this time, only loops 2 and 4 are under the
pole faces, so the terminal voltage E is given
by: E = 2e (ωt=45°)
• Now, let the rotor continue to turn another 45 °
The resulting situation is shown next
 Commutation of the Rotating Loop
• Here, the 1’, 2, 3, and 4’ ends of the loops are
under the north pole face, and the 1, 2’, 3’ and
4 ends of the loops are under the south pole
face
 Commutation of the Rotating Loop
• The voltages are still built up out of the page for
the ends under the north pole face and into the
page for the ends under the south pole face
• The resulting voltage diagram is shown here:
 Commutation of the Rotating Loop
• There are now 4 voltage-carrying ends in each
parallel path through the machine, so the
terminal voltage E is given by
E = 4e (ωt=90°)
• Note: the voltages on loops 1 and 3 have
reversed between the 2 pictures (from ωt=0° to
ωt=90°),
• However, since their connections have also
reversed, the total voltage is still being built up
in the same direction as before. This is the
heart of every commutation scheme
Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
• In practice, there are two major effects that
disturb the commutation process:
1- Armature Reaction
2- L di/dt voltages
1- Armature Reaction
• If the magnetic field windings of a dc machine
are connected to a power supply and the rotor
of the machine is turned by an external source
of mechanical power, then a voltage will be
induced in the conductors of the rotor
• This voltage will be rectified into dc output by
the action of the machine’s commutator
Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
• Now, connect a load to the terminals of the machine,
and a current will flow in its armature windings
• This current flow will produce a magnetic field of its
own, which will distort the original magnetic field from
the machine’s poles
• This distortion of the flux in a machine as the load is
increased is called armature reaction
• It causes 2 serious problems in real dc machine
Problem 1 : Neutral-Plane Shift
• The magnetic neutral plane is defined as the plane
within the machine where the velocity of the rotor
wires is exactly parallel to the magnetic flux lines
• so that eind in the conductors in the plane is exactly
zero
Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
• Development of “armature reaction”
 Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
Armature Reaction
• Figure (a) shows a two poles machine
• Note: flux is distributed uniformly under the pole
faces (in air gap)
• rotor windings shown have voltages built up out
of the page for wires under the north pole and
into the page for wires under the south pole
face
• The magnetic neutral plane in this machine is
exactly vertical at this stage
• Now, suppose a load is connected to this
machine so that it acts as a generator
Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
Armature Reaction
• current will flow out of the positive terminal of
the generator
• so current will be flowing out of the page for
wires under the north pole face and into the
page for wires under the south pole face
• This current flow produces a magnetic field
from the rotor windings, figure (c)
• This rotor magnetic field affects the original
magnetic field from the poles that produced the
generator’s voltage
Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
Armature Reaction
• In some places under the pole surfaces, it subtracts
from the pole flux, and in other places it adds to the
pole flux
• both rotor & pole fluxes shown, indicating points they
add and subtract figure (d)
• The overall result is that the magnetic flux in the air
gap of the machine, as of figure (e)
• Note: the place on rotor where the induced voltage in
a conductor would be zero (the neutral plane) has
shifted in figure (e)
• for the generator shown here, the magnetic neutral
plane shifted in direction of rotation
Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
Armature Reaction
• If this machine had been a motor, the current in its
rotor would be reversed and the flux would bunch up
in the opposite corners from the bunches shown in the
figure
• As a result, the magnetic neutral plane would shift the
other way
• In general, the neutral-plane shifts
(a) in “direction of motion” for generator &
(b) opposite to “direction of motion” for a motor
• Furthermore, the amount of shift depends on the
amount of rotor current and hence on the load of the
machine
Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
Armature Reaction
• Note: if brushes are set to short out conductors in the
vertical plane, then voltage between segments is
indeed zero until machine is loaded
• When machine is loaded, neutral plane shifts &
brushes short out commutator segments with a finite
voltage across them
• The result is a current flow circulating between shorted
segments & large sparks at brushes when current
path interrupted
• This is a very serious problem, since it leads to
drastically reduced brush life, pitting commutator
segments & greatly increased maintenance cost
Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
Armature Reaction
• Note: this problem can not be solved even by placing
brushes over full-load neutral plane, because then
they would spark at no load
• In extreme cases neutral plane shift can even lead to
flashover in commutator segments near brushes
• Air near brushes in a machine is normally ionized as a
result of sparking on brushes
• Flashover occurs when voltage of adjacent
commutator segments gets large enough to sustain an
arc in ionized air above them
• If flashover occurs, resulting arc can even melt
commutator’s surface
Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
Armature Reaction
• Problem 2 : flux weakening
• Refer to magnetization curve (1 st figure next):
most machine operate at flux densities near saturation
point
• Therefore at locations on pole surfaces , where rotor
mmf adds pole mmf, only a small increase in flux
occurs
• But at locations on pole surfaces where rotor mmf
subtracts from pole mmf, there is a larger decrease in
flux
• Net result  total average flux under entire pole face
is decreased shown in 2nd figure (next) 
Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
Armature Reaction:field weakening
• A typical magnetization curve
 Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
Armature Reaction:field weakening
• Flux and mmf under pole faces in a dc machine
Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
Armature Reaction:field weakening
• Flux weakening causes problems in both generators &
motors
• In generators effect of flux weakening is simply to
reduce voltage supplied by generator for any given
load
• In motors effect can be more serious
• As shown when flux in motor decreased, its speed
increases
• But increasing speed of motor can increase its load,
resulting in more flux weakening
• It is possible for some shunt dc motors to reach
runway condition as a result where speed of motor just
keeps increasing until machine is disconnected, or
been destroyed
 Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
Armature Reaction:field weakening
• L di/dt Voltages occurs in commutator
segments & shorted by brushes, cause of
problem
Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
Armature Reaction:field weakening
• The previous figure, represents a series of
commutator segments and conductors connected
between them
• Assuming the current in brush is 400 A, current in
each path 200 A
• Note: when commutator segment is shorted out,
current flow through that commutator segment must
reverse
• How fast must this reversal occur? Assuming machine
is turning at 800 r/min & there are 50 commutator
segments (a reasonable number for a typical motor)
each segment moves under a brush & clears it again
in t=0.0015 s
 rate of change in current, of shorted loop would be:
di/dt=400/0.0015 = 266667 A/s
Problems with Commutation in Real Machine
Armature Reaction:field weakening
• With even a very small inductance in loop, a
very significant inductive voltage v= Ldi/dt will
be induced in the shorted commutator segment
• This high voltage naturally causes sparking at
brushes of machine, resulting in same arcing
problems that neutral plane shift causes
Solution to Problems with Commutation
• 3 approaches to (partially or completely)
rectify problems of armature reaction and
L di/dt voltages:

1- Brush Shifting

2- Commutating Poles or Interpoles

3- Compensating Windings
Solution to Problems with Commutation
BRUSH SHIFTING
• First attempts to improve process of commutation in real dc
machines, started with attempts to stop sparking at brushes
caused by neutral-plane shifts and L di/dt effects
• 1 st approach by designers: if neutral plane of machine shifts,
why not shift the brushes with it in order to stop sparking
• it seemed a good idea, however there are several serious
problems associated with it
1- neutral plane moves with every change in load , & shift
direction reverses when machines goes from motor operation to
generation operation, and brushes should be adjusted every
time load changed
2- shifting brushes may stop brush sparking, however
aggravated flux-weakening since:
(a) Rotor mmf now has a vector component opposes mmf of poles
(b) Change in armature current distribution cause flux to bunch up
even more at saturated parts of pole faces