ENGR. VIRNE P.

PORTUGUES
INSTRUCTOR III
College of Engineering and Architecture
Surigao Education Center
Surigao City
Extensive use of experimental studies to
the design
Construction of new mechanical and
structural element
Use of testing procedure for control of
established process
Who must understand testing?

those dealing with machine and

structures concerned with materials and
properties
• Successful mass production depends on
inspection and control of the quality of
manufactured products.
• Preparation of adequate specifications
involve an understanding of method of
testing and of inspection.
• Engineering research and development
call for carefully planned and well-devised
test.
1. Technique of testing – How do
commonly used types of equipment
operate?
2. Physical and mechanical principles
involved in the testing apparatus - Are
assumed condition satisfied?
3. Theory of measurement – What is the
precision of the result?

4. Variability of materials – How many test

are necessary to give a significant result?

5. Interpretation of results – What is the

significance of the test results?
Principal materials used for building and
structures:
1. Metals
2. Woods
3. Portland cement concrete
4. Bituminous mixtures
5. Clay Products
6. Masonry materials
7. Plastics
 Principal Functions:
 to develop strength
 to develop durability
 to develop rigidity

Auxiliary Constructional Materials:

 sealants
 adhesives
 preservatives
1. General
2. Chemical
3. Physico-Chemical
4. Mechanical
5. Thermal
6. Electrical and magnetic
7. Acoustical
8. Optical
Strength – may be taken as to refer to
resistance to failure:
 an entire piece of a material
 a small part of it
 or even its surface
Criterion for failure:
 rupture
 excessive deformation
Strength
a. Tension, compression, shear and flexure
b. Static impact and endurance
 Stiffness
Ductility, brittleness
Elasticity, plasticity
 Hardness, wear resistance
 Commercial testing – to supply routine
information on the quality of a product
Material research and developmental
work – to develop new or better
information on known materials or to
develop new materials
Scientific measurements – to obtain
accurate measures of fundamental
properties or physical constants
Inspection – has to do with the observation
of the process and product of
the manufacture or construction
for the purpose of ensuring the
presence of desired qualities
Inspection may be entirely:
A. Qualitative
B. May involve the performance of
complicated tests
In testing, we do not determine
properties, rather we obtain only
measures or indication or manifestation
of properties.
The significance of test is also affected by
its reliability.
The real significance of test lies in the
extent to which enable us to predict the
performance of a material in service.
Specification
– an attempt on the part of the consumer to
tell the producer what is wanted
Why specification fall short?
• it may be so loose
• it may be overly restrictive
• it may be based on inadequate or
improper criteria
• it may make no provision or inadequate
provision
 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Metals – are opaque, lustrous, elements that

are good conductors of heat and electricity
 most metals are malleable and ductile
 constitutes most important engineering
materials
 it can be combined with one another and
with some nonmetals to form alloy
Uses of metals:
Aerospace
Farming
Household convenience
Transportation
Biomedical applications
Food processing and
preservation
Electrical production and distribution
Computers Construction
Two groups of Metals:
1. Ferrous
2. Non-ferrous

Three common forms of ferrous metal:

1. Steel
2. Wrought iron
3. Cast iron
Non – ferrous metals – important group
engineering materials
Types of nonferrous metals:

Aluminum
Lead
Beryllium
Magnesium
Copper
Quality and Mechanical Properties:
1. Minimum tensile strength
2. Breaking load applied at the center of
standard flexural specimens
 Carbon is employed as the controlling
constituents in regulating properties of
both steels and alloy steels
 Carbon has no appreciable effect on the
stiffness of steel
it is due to the exposure of metals to
environment:
1. air
2. water
3. another gas or liquid
4. soil
 it is kind in some case, but injurious most
 as metals corrode, they lose strength
and other desirable properties
 Types of Corrosion
1. Direct chemical Reaction - corrosion of
iron and steel is commonly due to direct
chemical reaction with oxygen and water in
moist air: rusting
2. Electrolytic corrosion – ion movement from
anode to cathode causing the anodes to
corrode
Protection:
1. Passivation
2. Coating
Wire rope – is a cord made of strands of
wire of any ductile metal twisted together
nominal diameter is that of a circle
wire rope may have a fiber core
most often, wire is made of steel wire
which may be protected by coating with
zinc
For steel wire, tensile strength increases
with higher carbon content of steel
so named because the hardened cement
resembles like a gray limestone near
Portland, England
can be formed into many shapes
useful for pavements and foundation
Exhibits low tensile strength, but
reinforcing or prestressing normally with
can overcome this disadvantage
Concrete
– may be thought as a mass of inert filler
(aggregate) held together by a matrix of
binder (cement paste)
the solid portion of hardened concrete is
composed :
1. aggregate
2. a new product as a result of chemical
combination of cement with water
Cement
produced by burning in a rotary kiln almost
to the point of fusion and the kiln product
is known as ‘clinker” and ground with a
small amount of gypsum
the function of gypsum is to retard the time
of setting of concrete
concrete will develop a flash set without
gypsum
Water
do not use water that contains acids,
alkalies, salts, silts, and organic matter
water that is potable (drinkable, clean,
filtered) is satisfactory for concrete mix
minor impurities might be tolerated –
resultant loss in strength does not exceed
10%
under this criteria, some sea water may be
acceptable
Admixture
 can be advantageously added to concrete
mixes to modify some of their
characteristics
1. act as wetting agent – to increase fluidity
of mix
2. permit reduction of water – for a given
fluidity
3. retarders – retard the setting of concrete
4. accelerators – accelerate the setting of
concrete
Aggregate
 may be classified according:
1. source
2. mode of preparation
3. mineralogical composition
 it can natural or artificial
To qualify for use:
 clean, free of organic matter, hard,
tough, strong, durable, of proper
gradation, nonreactive with cement
Mixing and Placing
Machine mixing is always done in batch
mixers
Small batches can be done by hand mixing
Transportation can be done:
1. wheelbarrows
2. buggies
3. buckets
4. pumps
Compacting
 Compaction can be done by:
1. use of power-drive vibrator
2. hand tamping
3. impact force
Curing
 Types of Curing:
• Wetted burlap, straw, plastic, newspaper,
sand, etc.
• Ponding
• Steam
• Sprinkling
• Chemicals
Consistency
Relates to the state of fluidity of the mix
and embraces the range of fluidity from
driest to the wettest

Standard Tests for Concrete

For Aggregate:
Reducing Field sample of Aggregate
Sieve Analysis
Unit Weight of Aggregate
Surface moisture of Aggregate
For Portland Cement Concrete:
Fineness of Cement
Normal Consistency of Cement
Slump test
Time of Setting of Concrete
Compressive Strength of Concrete
Tensile Strength of Concrete
Flexural Strength of Concrete
 is thick brownish or black substance derived from
crude oil which produces kerosenes, gasoline and
vinyl
 it is literally scraped after all other oil-based
products have been refined or process
 it is at least 80% carbon
 sulphur is another tar-like asphalt
 used as sealants for rooftops
 durable surface for road, airport runways,
playgrounds and parking lots
 when used inroad construction, it is usually poured
over a bed of heavier aggregate in a heated state
 patching asphalt is usually bringing a new materials
to the affected area and pressing into the cracks or
potholes
 asphalt does not have a drawback or disadvantage
as construction material
 sulphur released during heating process is
hazardous to workers and very unpleasant passer-
by
 traffic and constant exposure to the elements can
cause asphalt to wear out faster than anticipated
 asphalt road are susceptible to cracks and potholes
 for general durability and low production costs, it is
hard to beat for many projects
 asphalt is often used as abbreviation for asphalt
concrete
Overview:
Plastic constitute a major contribution of
the 21st century to the storehouse of
constructional material.
Application not only as a sealants and
insulators but also as structural
components.
Properties suited to many application.
Some are reinforced with fibers.
What is plastic?
A type of of synthetic or man-made
polymer

A Little History:
In 1907 chemist Leo Hendrik Baekeland
stumbled upon a formula for a synthetic
polymer originating form coal while striving
to produce synthetic varnish.
He named a new substance, ‘bakelite”.
Two Major Types of Plastic:
1. Thermoplastic
– soften when they are heated and harden when
cooled no matter how often the cycle is repeated
2. Thermosetting plastics or ‘thermoset”
– harden when heated in irreversible process
Additives:
 Used to protect plastic from:
1. degrading effect of light, heat, or bacteria
2. to change properties of plastic as flows
3. to provide color
4. to provide special characteristics – to reduce
appearance or reduced track /friction
 Durables vs. Non-Durables:
Durables – products with a useful life of three
or more years
Non-durables – product with a useful life of
less than three years
 ENGINEERING PLASTICS
Are plastic that regain their original shape
after deformation
Unable to regain its original shape if it
reaches critical amount of deformation
Exhibit superior mechanical and thermal
properties
Usually refers to thermoplastics rather
than thermosetting plastics or thermoset
material
THERMOPLASTICS: Types
ABS Plastics
Acetals
Polypropylenes
Acrylic or polymethyl methacrylate
(PMMA)
Nylon or polyamide (PA)
Polyethylenes (PE)
Polystyrenes, cellulosics, polycarbonates
Polyvinyl chlorides (PVC)
THERMOSETTING PLASTICS: Types
Epoxies

Phenolics or phenol formaldehyde (PF)

Polyesters

Silicones (SI)

Polyurethanes (PU)

Alkyds, allylics, amines, melamines, polysulfides

History:
Wood has always been a constructional
material
Historically, wood building lasted a long time
The wood used was naturally durable
This wood came from “old” slow growing
trees
Today, faster growing species have a higher
sap wood content
 Wood as a Natural Resource
 Wood is renewable natural resource
 The advantage of wood include:
* Great strength to weight ratios
* Allows design and engineering flexibility
* Worked and fabricated easily
* High aesthetic appeal
 Wood Defined
 Wood is an organic substance composed
principally of cellulose (40 to 55 percent),
hemicellulose (15 to 25 percent), and lignin (15
to 30 percent)
 Wood is a cellular material of biological origin
 One definition of wood is that it is a
hygroscopic, anisotropic material
 Hygroscopic - the ability to attract moisture
from air
 Anisotropic – its structure and properties very
in different directions
 Classification of Wood
 Hardwood and Softwood
 Sapwood and Heartwood

Hardwood or Softwood
There is often confusion on the terms
 The distinction is a botanical one
Hardwood have broad leaves
 Softwood have narrow, needle like leaves
 Softwood & Hardwood
 Softwood usually Softwoods Hardwoods
bear cones Little Vast in species
differentiation and varieties
 Hardwoods, between species
almost never have Colder climates Milder climates
cones Usually Usually
coniferous deciduous
 Hardwoods and Softwoods
 A typical hardwood is mahogany. Pine is
softwood.
 Usually broadleaf woods are harder that most
conifers, however, there are some exceptions

Correct Measurement
Hardness of wood is not a correct measure for
classification
Structurally hardwoods and softwoods differ
Correct measure is by cellular structure
 Cell Structures
 Softwoods have more
open cell structure
called tracheids
Cross-section of fibre
cell found in hardwoods

 Hardwood cell structures

are predominantly consist
of vessel elements
Cross-section of tracheid
cell typical of a softwood
 HEARTWOOD AND SAPWOOD
Sapwood (live part), water and nutrient
transportation
Heartwood (dead part), storage and
support
Extractives make hardwood more
resistant to bio-deterioration than the
sapwood
This is natures way of preserving wood
A cut-through of a tree trunk
 Preservation of Sapwood
Woods with high levels of Heartwood last well
(slow grown – 300 yrs.)
High Sapwood lumber needs preservative
(rapid grown – 25 yrs.)
The sapwood zone is easy to penetrate and
preserve
Heartwood is very difficult to penetrate and
preserve
Wood containing Sapwood and Heartwood
cannot be 100% penetrated
Preserved Sapwood is often better than the
natural Heartwood
 Key Points
Wood from slow grown forests with high
heartwood content historically used for
construction
Slow grown Heartwood was naturally
resistant
Faster grown trees contain more Sapwood
Sapwood becomes durable when
preserved
 The Hygroscopic Nature of Wood
All trees contain water.
Water is part of the growth process.
Water in trees is commonly called sap.

Forms of Water
Water in wood is either:
 Trapped water
 Free Water
 Moisture Content
Types of Wood Moisture
 expressed as the Content (%)
percentage of water by
Green 30 – 250
mass in wood dried at
temperature 103±2ºC Air dry 12 – 15

Shrinkage Kiln dry 6–7

Oven dry 0
- Due to the drying of cell
walls. No shrinkage
occur until the moisture
contents reaches fiber
saturation point
 Drying Techniques
Three types of drying techniques exists:
 Air dried
 Sun dried
 Kiln Dried
Kiln Dried is the only controlled drying process.

Kiln Drying
Water can be removed from wood by evaporation.
The Kiln is a building which is designed to control
temperature and humidity allowing controlled
evaporation of water from the wood.
Control is an important factor in kiln drying.
Each timber species has a different
schedule.
Failure to control drying can also lead to
drying defects such as: Warping and
hardening case.
Case hardening is where the timber dries
on the outside but not on the inside
causing internal tension.
Controlled kiln drying minimize defects.
Increases compression strength.
 WOOD PRESERVATION

Why Treat Wood?

 Make less durable species more durable
 Protect against insects/fungal attack
 Prolong service life of wood
 Minimize environmental impact
 What Destroys Wood?
 Wood destroying insects
Termites
Wood Preservative
Marine borers Contain:
Decay fungi • An Insecticide
Mechanical * Wood Borer
Sun * Termite
• A Fungicide
Other
* Fungi
 Insect and Termite Attack
Two insects of concern:
• Wood Borer – not a major pest for dry
(<18% MC) machine gauged pine but can
cause damage in wetter wood
• Termites – can cause severe damage to
all untreated woods and other building
materials
 Wood is not a very durable material
 Form as part of the food chain being
natural organic substance
 Susceptible to attack by predators
 Wood is also combustible
 Fire resistance may be improved by
impregnation (saturate)
 Any irregularities that decrease its strength,
durability or utility
• Knots
• Checks (seasoning cracks)
• Shakes (separation of annual rings in the living
tree)
• Cross grain
• Decay
• Wane bark or lack of wood on a corner or edge
of a piece
• Pitch Pocket
Advantages of Wood as Engineering Materials:
 low energy content needed for production
Low cost of production
Environmentally friendly material
Renewable material
Low density makes it easier to transport
Not electrically conductive
Most wood are non toxic
Low in thermal conductivity
Nails and screws do not measurably weaken the
wood
 Disadvantage of Wood
 There is a large variability in properties
between species and depending on
growing conditions and position of the
wood within a trunk, within a specie
 Wood is dimensionally unstable, as water
changes its dimension
 Wood’s strength decrease when wet