ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

ENGR. DENVER G. MAGTIBAY

AMPLIFIERS
• An electronic circuit which is capable of increasing the
signal magnitude or amplitude without appreciably
altering the signal waveform characteristic.
• Amplification is the process of providing an increase in
amplitude.
AMPLIFIER GENERAL PRESENTATION
CLASSIFICATIONS
Voltage Amplifier
– Voltage-controlled voltage source
Current Amplifier
– Current-controlled current source
Transconductance Amplifier
– Voltage-controlled current source
Transimpedance Amplifier
– Current-controlled voltage source
AMPLIFIERS BY FUNCTION
• VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER • POWER AMPLIFIER
• The type of amplifier • Type of amplifier in
in which the output which the output
signal voltage is signal power is
larger than the input larger than the input
signal voltage. signal power.
AMPLIFIERS BY FREQUENCY RESPONSE

• Audio Amplifier
• RF Amplifier
• Video Amplifier
AUDIO AMPLIFIER
• Audio amplifiers are designed to amplify signals with
frequency between 20 Hz and 20 kHz.
• Any amplifier that is designed for any band of
frequencies contained in AUDIO RANGE is called
Audio Amplifier.
RF AMPLIFIER
• RF Amplifiers are designed to amplify signals
with frequencies between 10 kHz and 100 GHz.
• Any Amplifier designed to amplify frequency
band included in the RF range is considered an RF
Amplifier.
VIDEO AMPLIFIER
• Also known as WIDEBAND AMPLIFIERS.
• A Video Amplifier is designed to amplify a band
of frequencies from 10 Hz to 6 MHz.
Amplifier Primary Characteristics
In small-signal amplifiers the primary characteristics are:
Amplification
Linearity
Gain
Large signal amplifiers, or power amplifiers handle relatively
large voltage signals and current levels. As such, the primary
characteristics are:
Efficiency
Maximum power capability
Impedance matching
 Class A Amplifier
The transistor in a class A
amplifier conducts for the full
360 of the cycle.

The Q-point is set at the middle

of the load line so that the AC
signal can swing a full cycle.

Remember that the DC load line indicates the

minimum & maximum output voltage and
current allowed by the DC power supply.
 Series-Fed Class A Amplifier

This is similar to the

small-signal amplifier
except that it will handle
higher voltages and
currents. The transistor
used is a high-power
transistor.
Transformer-Coupled Class A Amplifier

This circuit uses a

transformer to
couple to its load.
This improves the
efficiency of the
Class A to 50%.
 Transformer Action
A transformer improves the efficiency of a class A amplifier because it
is able to transform the voltage, current, and impedance

Voltage Ratio
V1 N 1

V2 N 2

Current Ratio
I 2 N1

I1 N2

Impedance Ratio
2
R1  N1 
 
R2  N 2 
 Class B Amplifier
Each transistor in a class B
amplifier conducts for 180 (half)
of the AC input signal.

The Q-point is at 0 V on the load

line, so that the AC signal can
only swing for one-half cycle.
 Class B Amplifier
In class B, the transistor is
biased just at cutoff. The
AC signal turns the
transistor on.
The transistor only
conducts when it is turned
on by one-half of the AC
cycle.
In order to get a full AC • An npn transistor that provides
cycle out of a class B the negative half of the AC cycle
amplifier, you need two • A pnp transistor that provides the
transistors: positive half.
Transformer-Coupled Push-Pull Class B
Amplifier
The center-tapped
transformer on the input
produces opposite
polarity signals to the
two transistor inputs.

The center-tapped
transformer on the
output combines the two
halves of the AC
waveform together.
 Crossover Distortion

If the transistors Q1 and Q2 do

not turn on and off at exactly
the same time, then there is a
gap in the output voltage.
 Quasi-Complementary Push-Pull
Amplifier

A Darlington pair and a feedback

pair combination perform the
push-pull operation. This
increases the output power
capability.
 Class AB Amplifier

This amplifier is a compromise

between the class A and class B
amplifier—the Q-point for each
transistor is above that of the
Class B but below the class A.

Each transistor conducts for more

than 180 of the AC input signal.
Class AB Amplifier
Class C

The output of the class C

conducts for less than 180
of the AC cycle. The Q-point
is below cutoff.
 Class C Amplifier

A class C amplifier conducts for less

than 180. In order to produce a full
sine wave output, the class C uses
a tuned circuit (LC tank) to provide
the full AC sine wave.

Class C amplifiers are used

extensively in radio communications
circuits.
 Class D Amplifier

A class D amplifier amplifies

pulses, and requires a
pulsed input.

There are many circuits that

can convert a sinusoidal
waveform to a pulse, as well
as circuits that convert a
pulse to a sine wave. This
circuit has applications in
digital circuitry.
SUMMARY OF AMPLIFIER CLASSES
 CLASSES OF AMPLIFIERS - COMPARISON
Class A Class B Class AB Class C

Q-point Active region Cut-off a little above

below cut-off
position (linear portion) region cut-off
Conduction Between
360O 180O less than 180O
Angle 180O – 360O
Distortion low high moderate very high
25% & 50% for
Maximum Between
transformer 78.5% more than 90%
Efficiency Class B and A
coupled
 OTHER AMPLIFIERS - CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS

Cascaded Amplifier – the output of the first

stage provides the input of the next stage
(connected in a series fashion)
Cascode Amplifier – a common-emitter on the
first stage feeding a common-base stage. This
provides high input impedance and low noise.
 OTHER AMPLIFIERS - CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS

Darlington Amplifier – two transistors in which the collectors

are tied together and the emitter of the first transistor is directly
coupled to the base of the second transistor. The current gain  of
this circuit is the product of the individual transistors’ current gain.
Also called darlington pair, double-emitter follower, or 
multiplier.
Differential Amplifier – designed to respond to the difference
between the two input voltages. Differential amplifier is usually the
input circuit of most low-noise power amplifiers and operational
amplifiers.
COUPLING
• The process of transferring energy from one circuit
to another is called COUPLING.
DIRECT COUPLING

• The method of coupling with the least number of

circuit elements.
• In direct coupling, the output of one stage is
directly connected to the input of the following
stage.
DIRECT COUPLING
• Direct Coupling provides a GOOD FREQUENCY
RESPONSE since no frequency-sensitive devices
are present.
• Disadvantages includes:
• High Voltage requirement for the succeeding
stages,
• It is difficult to match the impedance from stage to
stage with direct coupling.
• Not very efficient therefore losses increase as the
number of stages increases.
DIRECT COUPLING
RC COUPLING
• RC Coupling is the most used coupling in amplifiers.
• RC coupling allows the coupling of the signal while it
isolates the biasing of each stage.
• Disadvantage includes: LOW EFFICIENCY because of
the resistor use dc power.
RC COUPLING
IMPEDANCE COUPLING

• Impedance Coupling is very similar to RC

coupling, the only difference is coil is used
instead of resistor.
• Impedance Coupling has better efficiency
because of the small coil resistance used instead
of a resistor in RC coupling.
IMPEDANCE COUPLING
TRANSFORMER COUPLING

• In Transformer Coupling, inductors are used in the

primary and secondary therefore its more efficient.
• Transformer Coupling is used for the final output
because of the impedance matching qualities of the
transformer.
TRANSFORMER COUPLING
 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
• It is an amplifier which is designed to be
+V
used with other components to perform
either computing functions or some type –

of transfer operation such as filtering. +

• It has 5 terminals: inverting input (-), non-

–V
inverting input (+), positive supply,
negative supply and output
GENERAL OP-AMP CHARACTERISTICS
Ideal Op-Amp Practical Op-Amp
• Infinite voltage gain • High voltage gain (200,000)
• Infinite bandwidth • High bandwidth (1 MHz)
• Infinite input impedance • High input impedance (2 MΩ)
• Zero output impedance • Low output impedance (75 Ω)
• Infinite CMRR • High CMRR (90dB)
• Infinite Slew Rate • High Slew Rate (0.5V/μs)
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF OP-AMP
• Internally, the typical op-amp has a differential
amplifier, a voltage amplifier, and a push-pull
common collector amplifier.

+
Push-pull
Differential Voltage
amplifier
Vin amplifier amplifier(s) Vout
output
– input stage gain stage
stage
 SIGNAL MODES
• Differential-mode signals are • Common-mode signals are
applied either as single-ended (one applied to both sides with the
side on ground) or double-ended same phase on both.
(opposite phases on the inputs).
Vin Vin

– –
Vout Vout
+ +

Vin
–
– Vout
Vin Vout +
+ Vin

Differential mode signals Common-mode signals

OP-AMP PARAMETERS
• VO(p-p): The maximum output voltage swing is determined
by the op-amp and the power supply voltages
Typical Value: 13V

• VOS: The input offset voltage is the differential dc voltage

required between the inputs to force the output to zero volts
Typical Value: 1mV
 OP-AMP PARAMETERS
• IIB: The input bias current is the average of
I1  I 2
the two dc currents required to bias the IIB 
2
differential amplifier
Typical Value: 80nA
• IIO: The input offset current is the
difference between the two dc bias currents IIO | I 1  I 2 |
Typical Value: 20nA
 OP-AMP PARAMETERS
• The slew rate is the maximum rate of change
𝜟𝑽𝒐
of the output voltage in response to a step 𝑺𝒍𝒆𝒘 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 =
𝜟𝒕
input voltage
𝑨𝒅
• Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) - The 𝑪𝑴𝑹𝑹 =
𝑨𝒄
ability of an amplifier to amplify differential
signals and reject common-mode signals 𝑨𝒅
𝑪𝑴𝑹𝑹 = 𝟐𝟎 log
𝑨𝒄
• Gain-Bandwidth Product - A constant
parameter which is always equal to the
frequency at which the op-amp’s open-loop
gain is unity (1).
COMMON OP-AMP CIRCUITS
• Inverting amplifier • Integrator
• Noninverting amplifier • Differentiator
• Unity follower • Comparator
• Summing amplifier
INVERTING AMPLIFIER

 Rf
Vo  V1
R1
NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER

Rf
Vo  (1  )V1
R1
UNITY FOLLOWER / VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

Vo  V1
 SUMMING AMPLIFIER

 V1 V2 V3 
Vo   R f    
 R1 R2 R3 
 INTEGRATOR
• The output is the integral of
the input; proportional to the
area under the input
waveform. This circuit is useful
in low-pass filter circuits and
sensor conditioning circuits.
1
RC 
v o (t )   v 1( t )dt
 DIFFERENTIATOR
• The differentiator takes the
derivative of the input. It
produces an output that
approximates the instantaneous
rate of change of the input
function. This circuit is useful in
high-pass filter circuits. dv1(t )
v o (t )  RC
dt
COMPARATOR
 PASSIVE FILTER RESPONSE
• A passive filter is a circuit that passes certain frequencies and rejects all
others. The passband is the range of frequencies allowed through the
filter. The critical frequency defines the end (or ends) of the passband.
• Components includes resistor, capacitor and inductor
• Basic filter responses:
Gain Gain Gain Gain

f f f f
Low-pass High-pass Band-pass Band-stop
BASIC LOW PASS FILTER
• The low-pass filter allows frequencies below the critical
frequency to pass and rejects other. The simplest low-pass
filter is a passive RC circuit with the output taken across C.
Gain (normalized to 1)

–3 dB 0 dB Actual response of a
single-pole RC filter
Passband
–20 dB
Transition R
region Vout

–40 dB
–2
0d
BW B/ Vs
de C
Stopband ca
region de
–60 dB f
0.01 fc 0.1 fc fc 10 fc 100 fc 1000 fc

Pole: A circuit containing one resistor and one capacitor that

contributes -20 dB/decade or -6 dB/octave to a filter’s roll-off.
BASIC HIGH PASS FILTER
• The high-pass filter passes all frequencies above a critical
frequency and rejects all others. The simplest high-pass
filter is a passive RC circuit with the output taken across R.
Gain (normalized to 1)

0 dB
–3 dB
Actual response
Passband
of a single-pole
–20 dB RC filter
C
Vout
de
eca
–40 dB B /d
0d Vs
–2 R

–60 dB f
0.001 fc 0.01 fc 0.1 fc fc 10 fc 100 fc
BASIC BANDPASS FILTER
• A band-pass filter passes all frequencies between two
critical frequencies. The bandwidth is defined as the
difference between the two critical frequencies. The simplest
band-pass filter is an LC circuit in series with the load.
Vout (normalized to 1)

0.707

BW

f
fc1 f0 fc2
BASIC BANDSTOP FILTER
• A band-stop filter rejects frequencies between two critical
frequencies; the bandwidth is measured between the
critical frequencies. The simplest band-stop filter is a
parallel LC circuit in series with the load.
Gain (dB)

0
–3 L

Vout
C

Vs R

f
fc1 f0 fc2
BW
 ACTIVE FILTER RESPONSE
• Active filters include one or more op-amps in the design. These filters can
provide much better responses than the passive filters. Active filter
designs optimize various parameters such as amplitude response, roll-off
rate, or phase response.
Av Chebyshev: rapid roll-off characteristic

Butterworth: flat amplitude response

Bessel: linear phase response

f

• Rolloff - The rate of decrease in gain below or above the critical frequencies of a
filter.
FIRST ORDER, LOW PASS ACTIVE FILTER

1
• The upper cutoff frequency is given by: fOH 
2πR1C1
SECOND ORDER, LOW PASS ACTIVE FILTER

• The roll-off can be made steeper by adding more RC networks.

FIRST ORDER, HIGH PASS ACTIVE FILTER

1
fOL 
• The lower cutoff frequency is given by: 2πR1C1
 TWO STAGE BANDPASS FILTER
• There are two cutoff
frequencies: upper and
lower. They can be
calculated using the same
low-pass cutoff and high-
pass cutoff frequency
formulas in the
appropriate sections.
 AMPLIFIER FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK is the process of sending part of the output
signal of an amplifier back to the input of the amplifier.
Types of FEEDBACK:
• Positive Feedback or Regenerative Feedback
• Negative Feedback or Degenerative Feedback
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
Positive Feedback occurs when the feedback
signal occurs in-phase (0o) with the input signal.
Applications: Oscillator
ADVANTAGES
1. Greater gain

DISADVANTAGES
1. Increases instability
2. Increases noise and distortion
3. Reduces bandwidth
POSITIVE FEEDBACK GAIN AND BANDWIDTH
Where:
A
Af  Af – gain of the system with
1  A feedback
A – gain without feedback
BWf - Bandwidth with feedback
BWf  BW (1  A ) BW - Bandwidth without feedback
β – feedback factor
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
• Negative Feedback occurs when the feedback signal
occurs out-of-phase (180o) with the input signal.
• Applications: Amplifier Circuits
ADVANTAGES
1. Increases stability
2. Reduces noise and distortion
3. Increases bandwidth

DISADVANTAGES
1. Reduce Gain
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK GAIN AND BANDWIDTH
Where:
A
Af  Af – gain of the system with
1  A feedback
A – gain without feedback
BWf - Bandwidth with feedback
BWf  BW(1  A ) BW - Bandwidth without feedback
β – feedback factor
GENERAL REPRESENTATION OF FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
• Acquires a portion of the output signal that is to be
fed back to the input
• Can be a VOLTAGE or CURRENT sampling
VOLTAGE SAMPLING / SHUNT DERIVE
• The feedback network is connected in shunt across
the output node.
CURRENT SAMPLING / SERIES DERIVE
• The feedback network is connected in series with the
output loop.
• Responsible for combining the signal source with the
feedback.
• Can be a SERIES or SHUNT mixing
SERIES MIXING / VOLTAGE SUMMING
• The feedback network is connected in series with the
input loop so that the feedback signals is in the form
of voltage.
SHUNT MIXING / CURRENT SUMMING

• The feedback network is connected in shunt with the

input terminal so that what is added to the input is
current.
AMPLIFIER FEEDBACK TOPOLOGIES
VOLTAGE-SERIES OR SERIES-SHUNT FEEDBACK

• Sum Signal – Voltage

• Sample Signal – Voltage
• Zinf = Zin(1+βA)
• Zof = Zo/(1+βA)
• Amplifier Type: Voltage Amplifier
VOLTAGE-SHUNT OR SHUNT-SHUNT FEEDBACK

• Sum Signal – Current

• Sample Signal – Voltage
• Zinf = Zin/(1+βA)
• Zof = Zo/(1+βA)
• Amplifier Type: Transimpedance Amplifier
CURRENT-SERIES OR SERIES-SERIES FEEDBACK

• Sum Signal – Voltage

• Sample Signal – Current
• Zinf = Zin(1+βA)
• Zof = Zo(1+βA)
• Amplifier Type: Transconductance Amplifier
CURRENT-SHUNT OR SHUNT-SERIES FEEDBACK

• Sum Signal – Current

• Sample Signal – Current
• Zinf = Zin/(1+βA)
• Zof = Zo(1+βA)
• Amplifier Type: Current Amplifier
•
OSCILLATORS
Circuit that generates repetitive waveform at a certain frequency
which maybe sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal with only a DC supply at the
input.
• Using a positive feedback with a transistor, electron tube, magnetic
amplifier or other amplifying device produce the oscillations.
CONDITIONS TO SUSTAIN OSCILLATION
Barkhausen Criterion
1. The voltage gain around the closed loop feedback
loop or loop gain (Aβ) must equal to 1 (unity).
2. The phase shift around the feedback loop must be
effectively 0 or 360 degrees.
 CONDITIONS FOR OSCILLATION
• To START oscillation, Loop Gain (Aβ) > 1
• To SUSTAIN oscillation, Loop Gain (Aβ) = 1

During oscillation:
Steady oscillation: Aβ = 1 Clipping: Aβ > 1 Damping: Aβ < 1
 SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS
• A sinusoidal oscillator is a device that produces a sine-wave
output signal.
Types of Sinusoidal Oscillator
a. RC Oscillators
b. LC Oscillators
c. Pierce Oscillator
A. RC OSCILLATORS
• A type of oscillator that has a combination of resistor and
capacitor.
• RC feedback elements are normally used in oscillator that
require low frequency of oscillation up to 1MHz

Types of RC Oscillators
• Wien-Bridge Oscillator
• Phase Shift Oscillator
 WIEN-BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
• A Wien-Bridge Oscillator is a lead-
lag circuit.
• Feedback Factor (β) = 1/3
• Voltage gain (A) ≥ 3
• Resonant Frequency (fr)
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2π 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2π𝑅𝐶
PHASE-SHIFT OSCILLATOR
• An RC oscillator that makes use of
3 RC circuit as feedback network.
• Feedback factor (β) = -1/29
• Voltage gain (A) ≥ -29
• Resonant Frequency (fr)
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2π 6𝑅𝐶
B. LC OSCILLATORS
• A type of oscillator that has a combination of inductor and
capacitor.
• LC feedback elements are normally used in oscillator that
require higher frequencies of oscillation (f>1MHz).

Types
• Armstrong Oscillator • Colpitts Oscillator
• Hartley Oscillator • Clapp Oscillator
 ARMSTRONG OSCILLATOR
• Oscillator that employs a transformer in
parallel with a capacitor.
• Type of LC feedback oscillator that uses
transformer coupling to fed back a
portion of the signal voltage. It is
sometimes called a “tickler” oscillator in
reference to the transformer secondary.
1
• It has a disadvantage in terms of size fr 
2 LpriC
and cost
HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
• An oscillator with a tapped inductor.

1
fr 
2 LtC
Where: Lt  L1  L2
 COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
• Colpitts Oscillator is similar to
Hartley Oscillator except that two
capacitors are used in the tank
circuit instead of a tapped coil.

1 Where: C 1C 2
fr  Ct 
2 LCt C1  C2
 CLAPP OSCILLATOR
• Clapp Oscillator is an improvement of
Colpitts Oscillator.
• The basic difference is an additional
capacitor Cs in series with the inductor
in the resonant feedback circuit.

1 Where: 1
fr  Ct 
1 1 1
2 LCt  
C1 C2 C
C. PIERCE OSCILLATOR
• The most stable and accurate type of
feedback that uses piezoelectric crystal in
the feedback loop to control the frequency.
• Piezoelectric effect is a crystal property
that is when a changing mechanical stress is
applied across the crystal to cause it to
vibrate, a voltage develops at the
frequency of mechanical vibration.
CRYSTAL’S SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE
Series Resonance Parallel Resonance
• z = minimum • z = maximum
• I = maximum • I = minimum
• f < fr  capacitive circuit • f < fr  inductive circuit
• f > fr  inductive circuit • f > fr  capacitive circuit
RESONANT FREQUENCIES

• At series resonance:

• At parallel resonance:
COMMON CRYSTALS
• Rochelle salt has the best piezoelectric properties but is
very fragile.
• Quartz crystals fall between the two extremes and are
the most commonly used. Quartz crystals are made from
silicon dioxide (SiO2). Inexpensive and readily
available.
• Tourmaline is very tough, but has the least piezoelectric
activity. Most expensive among the three.
 NON-SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS
• Non-sinusoidal Oscillators generate complex waveforms such as
square, rectangular, trigger, sawtooth and trapezoidal waveforms.
• Uses two active components, one conducting and one cutoff at a
given time
• Also called RELAXATION OSCILLATORS.
• One example is the unijunction oscillator.
UNIJUNCTION OSCILLATOR
• The unijunction oscillator (or relaxation
oscillator) produces a sawtooth waveform.
• The output frequency is determined by:

1
fo 
RT CT ln1 ( 1  η)

• Where  is a rating of the unijunction

transistor with values between 0.4 and 0.6.
MULTIVIBRATORS
• The type of circuit most often used to generate
square or rectangular waves is the multivibrator.

• Three Types:
• Astable Multivibrator
• Monostable Multivibrator
• Bistable Multivibrator
STATES
•Steady stable state – state will not change
unless the circuit is disturbed.
•Quasi stable state – state that remains
unchanged for only a certain period of time.
 ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
• Also called free-running
multivibrator
• It has no stable state and
two quasi stable state.
• T = 1.38RC
 MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
• Also known as single-shot
or one shot
• It has one stable and one
quasi-stable state
• T = 0.693RC
 BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
• Commonly known as flip-flop,
binary or Eccles-Jordan
multivibrator.
• It has two stable states and no
quasi stable state.
• T = 0.693RC
 “Striving for success without hard work is like
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