DEEP FOUNDATIONS

(PILE FOUNDATION)
FOR BRIDGES

G S YADAV
Professor Bridge 2
 BASIC PARAMETERS
• Design discharge
• Design discharge for foundations and
protection works
• Depth of scour
• Maximum depth of scour
• Depth of foundation ( 1.33 times the
maximum depth of scour )
 DESIGN DICHARGE
• Five Methods :
1. From stream flow records( yearly peak discharges)
available for the desired recurrence interval or
more
2. Statistical analysis
3. Unit hydrograph drawn on basis of limited
observations of rainfall and discharge
4. Synthetic unit hydrograph
5. From stage discharge relationships established
from gauging of the stream
 DESIGN DISCHARGE FOR
FOUNDATION
• Design discharge for foundations , protection works
and training works except free board , shall be shall
be computed by increasing Q as below

Catchment Area( Sqkm) Percentage Increase

Upto 500 30%

500 upto 5,000 30% to 20%
5000 to 25,000 20% to 10%
More than 25,000 Less than 10% ( at the discretion
of chief engineer)
 NORMAL DEPTH OF SCOUR (D)
• In case of natural channels flowing in alluvial beds
where width of waterway provided is not less than
Lacey’s regime width

D = 0.473 (Qf / f)1/3

Where
D is scour depth in meters
Qf is design discharge for foundation in cusecs
f is Lacey’s silt factor (f = 1.76 √m)
m is weighted mean diameter of the bed material
particles in mm
 NORMAL DEPTH OF SCOUR (D)
• If width of waterway provided is less than Lacey’s
regime width for Q ( notQf ) or where it is narrow and
deep as in incised rivers and has sandy bed , the
normal depth of scour is given by

𝒒𝒇𝟐 1/3
𝑫= 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟖( )
𝒇

Where qf is the discharge intensity in cumec per meter

width
 MAXIMUM DEPTH OF SCOUR
Normal depth of scour D is increased to obtain
maximum depth of scour for design of foundations,
protection works and training works :

Nature of river/ location Depth of scour

In a straight reach 1.25D

At the moderate bend conditions e.g. 1.5D
along apron of guide bund
At a severe bend 1.75D
At a right angle bend or nose of pier 2.0D
In severe swirls e.g. against mole 2.5D to 2.75D
head of a guide bund
 ‘D’ in CLAYEY BEDS
• In clayey beds, wherever possible , maximum
depth of scour shall be assessed from actual
observations at site
 CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
• BROAD CALSSIFICATION
– DRIVEN (DISPLACEMENT PILES)
– BORED (REPLACEMENT PILE)
• ON THE BASIS OF MATERIAL
– TIMBER
– STEEL
– PCC
– RCC
– PSC
– COMPOSITE
 CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
• METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
– DRIVEN PRECAST PILES
– DRIVEN CAST IN SITU PILES
– BORED PRECAST PILES
– BORED CAST IN SITU PILES

• MODE OF LOAD TRANSMISSION

– END BEARING PILES
– FRICTION PILES
– FRICTION CUM END BEARING PILES
 CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
• SECTIONAL AREA
– CIRCULAR
– SQUARE
– TUBULAR
– OCTAGONAL
– H-SECTION
• SIZE
– MICRO (MINI) PILES (<150 mm)
– SMALL DIAMETER PILE (>150 mm < 600 mm)
– LARGE DIAMETER PILE (>600 mm)
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES

• INCLINATION

– VERTICAL PILES

– RAKER (BATTER PILES)

END BEARING PILE
FRICTION PILES
 SELECTION OF TYPE OF PILE
• Availability of Space : Driven Piles require large
areas and head room since it needs larger and
heavier driving rigs
• Proximity to Structures : driving cause vibrations in
ground which may cause damage to nearby
structures
• Reliability : Precast driven piles ensure good
quality of material, uniform section of piles
• Compaction of cohesion less soils affected if driven
piles are used
• Cast in situ piles can be formed to any desired
length and no cutting of pile or addition to length
required
 SOCKETTING IN ROCK
• FOR THE END BEARING PILES
 SOUND RELATIVELY HOMOGENOUS ROCK
INCLUDING GRANITE AND GNEISS -- 1 TO 2D
 MODERATELY WEATHERED CLOSELY FORMED
INCLUDING SCHIST & SLATE ---- 2 TO 3D
 SOFT ROCK --- 3 TO 4D
 SPACING OF PILES
• FOR END BEARING PILES
– GOVERNED BY COSISTENCY OF BEARING STRATA
– NOT LESS THAN 2.5 D
• FOR FRICTION PILES
– SUFFICIENTLY APART TO AVOID OVERLAPPING ZONES
– NOT LESS THAN 3 D
• MAX SPACING 4D
 INSTALLATION OF PILEs
( BORED CAST in SITU)
• Pile installation in stiff soil strata not
requiring side stabilisation :
1. Wide range of piling rigs are now available.
Type of rig to be used depends upon type of
soil strata and depth of drilling
2. Power driven rotary augur drills are suitable
for installing piles in clay soils
3. Piles can be installed from 300 mm dia to
over 5000 mm dia and depths upto 100 m
 INSTALLATION OF PILEs
( BORED CAST in SITU)
• Pile installation in soil strata requiring side
stabilisation :
1. One option could be to drive MS casing upto
full depth.
2. Mud circulation method
3. Continuous Flight Augers method
TREMIE CONCRETING
 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF PILE
• Ultimate load carrying capacity of a Pile may be assessed
by :
(i) Dynamic pile formula, using data obtained during
driving of piles, or by
(ii) Static formula on the basis of soil test results, or by
(iii) Load Test ……only after 4 weeks of installation of pile
• For Non cohesive soils Hiley’s Formula is more reliable
than other formulae ( Appendix B of IS 2911 pt 1/sec1)
• Hiley’s Formula not reliable in cohesive soils
• Where scour is anticipated , resistance due to skin friction
will be available only below scour level
 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF PILE
• When pile is installed through compressive fill or
sensitive clay into underlying hard stratum, a
downward drag down force is generated in the fill.
This must be added to the load
• The drag force can be roughly estimated as
cohesion of the remolded clay multiplied by the
surface area of pile shaft
FACTORS INFLUENCING PILE CAPACITY
• SURROUNDING SOIL
• INSTALLATION TECHNIQUE
• SPACING OF PILES
• SYMMETRY OF THE GROUP
• LOCATION OF PILE CAP
• DRAINAGE CONDITIONS IN SOIL
(Appendix B IS2911pt1/sec2)
(Appendix B IS2911pt1/sec2)
BEARING CAPACITY OF A PILE GROUP
• MAY BE
EQUAL TO THE BC OF SINGLE PILE X NO. OF PILES
LESS/MORE THAN THE ABOVE
• FRICTION PILES, CAST OR DRIVEN INTO
PROGRESSIVELY STIFFER MATERIALS & END
BEARING PILES – EQUAL
• FRICTION PILES INSTALLED IN SOFT AND CLAYEY
SOILS – LESS
• DRIVEN PILES IN LOOSE SANDY SOILS – MORE DUE
TO EFFECT OF COMPACTION
 BEARING CAPACITY OF A PILE GROUP
(para 2.6 of well& pile foundation code)

STRATA TYPE OF PILE BC PF PILE GROUP

1. DENSE SAND NOT DRIVEN NO. OF PILES X SPC*
UNDERLAIN BY WEAK
DEPOSITS
2. LOOSE SANDY SOILS ½ (NO. OF PILES X SPC*)

3. SAND NOT BORED ⅔ (NO. OF PILES X SPC*)

UNDERLAIN BY WEAK
DEPOSITS
*SPC – SINGLE PILE CAPACITY
PERMISIBLE TOLERANCE FOR PILES
• ALIGNMENT CONTROL
– VERTICAL PILES – DEVIATION OF 1.5%
– RAKER PILES – DEVIATION OF 4%
• SHIFT
– FOR PILES LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 600 MM DIA
• NOT MORE THAN 75 MM OR D/4 WHICHEVER IS LESS
– FOR MORE THAN 600 MM. DIA. PILES
• 75 MM OR D/10 WHICHEVER IS MORE
• EXCESS DEVIATION BEYOND DESIGN LIMITS –PILE TO
BE REPLACED OR SUPPLEMENTED BY ADDITIONAL
PILES
 PILE LOAD TEST
• Two types of tests for each type of loading ( ie
vertical, lateral, pullout )
Initial test, &
Routine test
 PILE LOAD TESTING
(IS-2911 PART-IV)
• Initial Test
 For small size projects ( total piles less than 1000) , a
minimum of two tests.
 For large projects ( piles more than 1000), a minimum of
two tests for first 1000 piles and additional one test for
every additional 1000 piles and part thereof.
 Initial test piles should be installed by the same technique,
same type of equipment as that proposed for working
piles.
• Purpose
 To check safe load calculated by static or dynamic
formulae
 Arrive at safe load
 PILE LOAD TESTING
(IS-2911 PART-IV)
• Routine Test
– On 0.5 percent of total number piles subject to a
minimum one test, can be increased to 2%
depending on nature of strata.
• Purpose
– It is carried out on a working pile with a view to
check whether pile is capable of taking the
working load assigned to it
– Detection of any unusual performance contrary to
the finding of initial test.
– Workmanship
 PILE LOAD TESTING METHODS
• Maintained Load Method : applicable for
both initial and routine test
• Cyclic Method : this method is used in case of
initial test to find out separately skin friction
and point bearing load on single piles
• CRP Method : this method is used for initial
test only
 MAINTAINED LOAD METHOD
• Test should be carried out by applying a series of
vertical downward incremental load, each
increment being about 20 percent of safe
estimated load on pile
• Each stage of loading shall be maintained till the
rate of movement of the pile top is not more than
0.2mm/h or until 2h have elapsed, whichever is
earlier subject to a minimum of 1 h
• The test load is maintained for 24 hours
 MAINTAINED LOAD METHOD
• Vertical loading on single pile shall be continued till
one of the following takes place :
(a) In case of Initial Load Test:
1. Applied load reaches 2.5 times the safe estimated
load; or
2. Max settlement of pile exceeds a value of 10
percent of pile diameter in case of uniform dia piles
and 7.5 percent in case of bulb dia of under-reamed
piles.
 MAINTAINED LOAD METHOD
(b) In case of routine load test :
1. Applied load reaches 1.5 times the working
load ; or
2. Max settlement of pile exceeds a value of 12
mm for piles dia up to and including 600mm
and 18 mm or maximum of 2 percent of pile
dia whichever is less for piles of dia more
than 600 mm.
 MAINTAINED LOAD METHOD
• Vertical loading on group of piles shall be continued till
one of the following takes place :
(a) In case of initial load test:
1. Applied load reaches 2.5 times the safe estimated load
;or
2. Maximum settlement of pile exceeds a value of 40 mm
(b) In case of routine load test :
1. Applied load reaches the working load
2. Maximum settlement of pile exceeds a value of 25 mm
 SAFE LOAD-INITIAL TEST
• THE SAFE LOAD ON A SINGLE PILE WILL BE
LEAST OF THE FOLLOWING
• (A) FOR PILES UPTO 600 MM DIA :

– Two third of the final load at which total

displacement attains a value of 12 mm

– 50 % of the final load at which the total

displacemnt equals 10 % of the dia. Of pile
for uniform dia piles and 7.5 percent of bulb
dia for under-reamed piles.
 SAFE LOAD-INITIAL TEST
• (B) FOR PILES UPTO 600 MM DIA :
1. Two-thirds of the final load at which
the totakl displacement attains a value
of 18mm or maximum of 2 percent pile
diameter whichever is less.
2. 50 % of the final load at which the
total displacemnt equals 10 % of the
dia. Of pile for uniform dia piles and
7.5 percent of bulb dia for under-
reamed piles.
 SAFE LOAD – INITIAL TEST
• THE SAFE LOAD FOR GROUP OF PILES

– FINAL LOAD AT WHICH TOTAL

DISPLACEMENT IS 25 MM

– TWO THIRD OF FINAL LOAD AT WHICH

DISPLACEMENT IS 40 MM
Selection of piles for Routine Test :
1. Abnormal variation in concrete consumption
2. Sudden drop in concrete level during construction
of pile
3. Problems encountered during boring and tremie
operation
4. Significant variation in depth of pile with respect to
other adjoin piles and boring record
• The routine test shall be carried out for a test
load of at least 1.5 times the working load ;
the maximum settlement at the load being
not greater than 12 mm for piles up to 600
mm dia and 18 mm or 2 percent of pile dia
whichlever less for piles of dia more than
600mm
 OVERLOADING OF PILES
• 10% of the pile capacity may be allowed on
each pile
• Max overloading on a group shall be
restricted to 40% of the allowable load on a
single pile
• Shall not be allowed at initial design stage
 LOAD TEST – ROUTINE TEST
• TEST LOAD WILL BE ATLEAST 1.5
TIMES THE WORKING LOAD

• MAX. SETTLEMENT SHOULD NOT >

12 MM

• FOR GROUP OF PILES MAX.

SETTLEMENT SHOULD NOT > 25 MM
STATIC LOAD TEST ( Maintained
Load Method)
 PILE LOAD TEST
(KENTELEDGE ARRANGEMENT)
PILE LOAD TEST
(WITH ANCHOR PILES)
 DEFECTS IN CAST IN SITU PILES

• HONEY COMBING DUE TO INADEQUATE

VIBRATIONS
• SEGREGATION DUE TO IMPROPER CONCRETE
PLACEMENT METHODS
• WASHOUT OF CEMENT DUE TO GROUNDWATER
FLOW
• CRACKS IN PILE SHAFT DUE TO SHRINKAGE
• INCLUSION OF FOREIGN MATERIAL
• NECKING DUE TO COLLAPSE OF SIDE WALLS
DURING WITHDRAWAL OF TEMPORARY CASING
DESIGN OF PILES
 RELEVENT STANDARDS
• Manual on the Design and
Construction of well and pile
Foundations issued by RDSO
• IS 2911- Part I
– Section I – Driven cast in situ piles
– Section II- Bored cast in situ piles
– Section III- Driven precast concrete
piles
• IS 2911- Part IV- Load test
 RELEVENT STANDARDS

• Concrete Bridge code- For

structural design
• IRC- 78- For Road bridge
foundations, can be referred for
guidance
 STEPS OF DESIGN
1. From soil data, depth of scour – fix length
of pile
2. Based on thumb rules, fix dia of pile
3. Calculate load carrying capacity of single
pile using static formulae
4. Do rough design for selected group of piles.
Spacing to be based on thumb rules
5. Check design for load carrying capacity,
settlement, depth etc.
6. Revise design if required
7. Conduct load test to confirm capacity of
pile
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• DIA. OF PILE
– Bridge Manual- > normally 1 m
– IRC-78
» Bored piles on land- min. 1 m
» Bored pile in river bridge- min. 1.2 m
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» Provisions are for max. dia of 2.5 m

• For Railway bridges dia. Of 1 m to 1.5

m be normally adopted
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• SPACING OF PILE
– IRC-78
» Friction- min. 3 D
» End bearing- Can be reduced to clear distance= D
that is c/c 2D
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» End bearing- hard soil- Min. 2.5 D
» End bearing- hard rock- Min. 2.0 D
» Friction- Min 3.0 D
– RDSO Manual
» Friction – min. 3 D
» End bearing- Min. 2.5 D
» Max. 4 D

• For Railway bridges spacing of 2.5 D to 3.5D

be normally adopted
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• GROUP BEHAVIOR
– IRC-78
» End bearing- If spacing > 2.5 D, no reduction
» Friction- If spacing > 3 D, no reduction
» Check for block failure
» Settlement of group/single pile given for different
width of group/pile dia
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» Bored piles- end bearing- No reduction
» Other cases – descriptive guidelines given
– RDSO Manual
» Dense sand not underlying by weak soil – driven
pile – No reduction
» Loose sand soil – 50% reduction
» Sand not underlying by weak soil – bored-
reduction 33%
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• PILE CAP
– IRC-78
» Min. thickness 0.6 m or 1.5 times dia of pile,
whichever is more
» max offset of 150 mm beyond outer face
» Pile to project 50 mm into pile cap
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» Offset of 100-150 mm beyond outer face
» Pile to project 50 mm into pile cap
» Should be rigid enough
» Can be designed by taking dispersion at 45
degrees both from substructure and pile upto
centre line
– RDSO Manual
» NIL
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• CONCRETE AND STEEL
– IRC-78
» M 35, Min. cement 400 kg/m3, Max. W/C 0.4,
slump 50mm (150-200 for tremie)
» Min. long reinforcement 0.4%, links min. 8 mm @
150 mm c/c.
» Min cover 75 mm.
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» M 20, Min. cement 400 kg/m3, 10% extra cement
when under water, slump 100- 180 mm (150-180
for tremie)
» Min. long reinforcement 0.4%, Min. spacing
100mm, links min 6 mm @ 150 mm c/c.
» Min cover 40 mm.
– RDSO Manual
» NIL
» CBC to be followed based on environment condition
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• FOS
– IRC-78
» 2.5 if derived from static formulae for
soil. 5 for end bearing on rock and 10 for
socket resistance.
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» Appendix given for calculating strength
with static formulae
– RDSO Manual
» 3 if derived from static formulae.
» 2 if derived from load test
 LAYOUT

 Accuracy of prime
importance
 Should always be
cross checked by at
least two
independent surveys
 Permanent theodolite
stations with the
base line on the
bank will be
established to mark
reference points
 CAISSONS

• In case where the velocity of water in the river is

high making it difficult to construct either an island
or cofferdam to construct a well, caisson type
construction has been used.
• The caisson is pre cast at the shore with the bottom
which is generally provided with openings which are
plugged, and toed to the required position by tugs
and then plugs are removed to permit the caisson
to reach the bottom of the ocean bed.
• Sinking can also be by concreting in pockets
 CAISSONS

Example of caisson foundation in India

are -
Ganga bridge at Mokameh,
Brahmaputra bridge in Assam
Mahanadi Bridge at Cuttack
 Well v/s Pile
 Wells have a large cross sectional area and
hence more bearing capacity of soil.
 q=5.4 N2 B + 16(100+N2)D
 Well are hallow and most of the material is at
periphery. This provides a large section
modulus.
 Useful in controlling deflection against high horizontal force
 it is possible to sink a well through soil having
boulders, logs of wood, whereas Piles can not
be driven
 Well v/s Pile

 In case of wells, it is possible to visually

examine the strata through which sinking is
done and material on which it is finally
resting, hence the bearing capacity of a well
is certain. On other hand bearing capacity
of pile is generally uncertain
 Concreting in the staining of wells is done
under dry conditions and the quality of
concrete is much better than in case of cast
in situ piles.
 Well v/s Pile

 Size of well foundation cannot be reduced

indefinitely and hence it uneconomical to
use well foundation for very small loads,
pile foundations are more suitable.