Non-Ferrous

Metals
Non-Ferrous Metals
 These materials refer to the remaining metals known to mankind.

 The pure metals are rarely used as structural materials as they

lack mechanical strength.

 They are used where their special properties such as corrosion

resistance, electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity are
required.

 They are mainly used with other metals to improve their

strength.
 Non-Ferrous Metals
METALS: ALLOYS:
• Aluminum • Molybdenum • Brass
• Cadmium • Nickel • Tin Bronze
• Chromium • Platinum • Aluminum Bronze
• Cobalt • Silver • Cupro-nickel Alloys
• Copper • Tin • Aluminum Alloys
• Gold • Titanium • Zinc based ‘die-casting’
• Lead • Tungsten Alloys
• Magnesium • Vanadium • Tin-lead
• Manganese • Zinc
 Metal is a solid material that is typically  Alloy is a metal made by combining two
hard, shiny, malleable, fusible, and ductile, or more metallic elements, especially to
with good electrical and thermal give greater strength or resistance to
conductivity. corrosion.
ALUMINUM

Group 13
 Aluminum is a chemical
Period 3 element in the boron group with
Block P symbol Al and atomic number 13.
Atomic number 13
 It was discovered by Hans Oersted
Melting point
660.323°C,
1220.581°F,
in1825.
933.473 K

Boiling point
2519°C, 4566°F,  The name is derived from the Latin name
2792 K
for alum, 'alumen' meaning “bitter salt”.
 Characteristics
 Aluminum is a relatively soft, durable, lightweight, ductile,
and malleable metal with appearance ranging from silvery to
dull gray, depending on the surface roughness. It is nonmagnetic and
does not easily ignite.
 The yield strength of pure aluminum is 7–11 MPa, while aluminum
alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminum
has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel. It is
easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded.
 Aluminum is a good thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the
conductivity of copper, both thermal and electrical, while having only
30% of copper's density. Aluminum is capable of superconductivity, with
a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 Kelvin and a critical
magnetic field of about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas).
 Sources
Bauxite
Bauxite is the most common raw material used to
produce virgin aluminum. Almost all metallic aluminum is
produced from the ore bauxite. Bauxite occurs as a weathering
product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic
conditions. The five most prolific bauxite-producing nations are
Australia, Guinea, Jamaica, Brazil and China. According to 1998
data, Australia produces 2.5 times more bauxite than its nearest
rival.

Recycling
The other source of aluminum is from recycling. With no difference between virgin
and recycled aluminum and its alloys, the case for recycling of aluminum is compelling.
Taking 14,000KWH to produce a single tonne of virgin aluminum and just 700KWH to
produce a tonne of recycled aluminum, the energy figures alone speak volumes.
Combine this with global trends for producing less waste and lower impact on the
environment and the case is irrefutable.
 Uses
 Aluminum is used in a huge variety of products including cans, foils,
kitchen utensils, window frames, beer kegs and aeroplane parts. This is
because of its particular properties. It has low density, is non-toxic, has a
high thermal conductivity, has excellent corrosion resistance and can be
easily cast, machined and formed. It is also non-magnetic and non-
sparking. It is the second most malleable metal and the sixth most ductile.
 It is often used as an alloy because aluminum itself is not particularly
strong. Alloys with copper, manganese, magnesium and silicon are
lightweight but strong. They are very important in the construction of
aeroplanes and other forms of transport.
 Aluminum is also a good electrical conductor and is used in electrical
transmission lines. It is cheaper than copper.
 When evaporated in a vacuum, aluminum forms a highly reflective
coating for both light and heat. It does not deteriorate, like a silver
coating would. These aluminum coatings can be used in telescope
mirrors, decorative paper, packages and toys.
CADMIUM
 Cadmium is a chemical element with
Group 12
symbol Cd and atomic number 48. This soft,
Period 5 bluish-white metal is chemically similar to the
two other stable metals in group
Block d
12, zinc and mercury.
Atomic
48
number
321.069°C,  It was discovered in 1817 simultaneously
Melting Point 609.924°F,
by Stromeyer and Hermann,both in Germany, as
594.219 K
767°C, 1413°F,
an impurity in zinc carbonate.
Boiling Point
1040 K
 The name is derived from the Latin 'cadmia', the
name for the mineral calmine.
Characteristics
 Cadmium is a soft, malleable, ductile, bluish-white
metal, which is easily cut with a knife. It is an
excellent electrical conductor and shows good
resistance to corrosion and attack by chemicals.
It is similar in many respects to zinc in its chemical
properties. Cadmium tarnishes in air and is soluble
in acids but not in alkalis. The metal burns in air to
form brown cadmium oxide (CdO).
Sources
 Cadmium most often occurs in small
quantities associated with zinc ores, such as sphalerite
(ZnS). Greenockite (CdS) is the only cadmium mineral of
any consequence. Almost all cadmium is obtained as a
by-product of zinc, copper, and lead ore refining
operations.
 Uses
 Cadmium is a poison and is known to cause birth defects and cancer. As a
result, there are moves to limit its use.

 80% of cadmium currently produced is used in rechargeable nickel-cadmium

batteries. However, they are gradually being phased out and replaced with
nickel metal hydride batteries.

 Cadmium was often used to electroplate steel and protect it from corrosion. It
is still used today to protect critical components of aeroplanes and oil
platforms.

 Other past uses of cadmium included phosphors in cathode ray tube colour
TV sets, and yellow, orange and red pigments.

 Cadmium absorbs neutrons and so is used in rods in nuclear reactors to control

atomic fission.
CHROMIUM

Group 6  Chromium came from the Greek word for

color, chroma.
Period 4
 Chromium was discovered by Louis-Nicholas
Block d Vauquelin while experimenting with a material
known as Siberian red lead, also known as the
Atomic mineral crocoite (PbCrO4), in 1797.
24
number

Melting Point
1907°C,  He produced chromium oxide (CrO3) by
3465°F, 2180 K mixing crocoite with hydrochloric acid (HCl).
2671°C, 4840°F, Vauquelin was pleasantly surprised in 1798 to
Boiling Point discover that he was able to obtain metallic
2944 K
chromium by simply heating chromium oxide in
a charcoal oven.
Characteristics

 Chromium is a silver, lustrous, very hard metal that can take a high
mirror polish. It is also odorless, tasteless, and malleable.

 The metal forms a thin protective oxide coating in air, and burns
when heated to form green chromium oxide(Cr2O3).
Sources

 Chromium is not found as a free element in nature but is found in

the form of ores. The main ore of chromium is chromite (FeCr2O4).
To isolate the metal commercially, chromite ore is oxidized to
chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3). The metal is then obtained by heating
the oxide in the presence of aluminum or silicon.
 Chromite is found in Zimbabwe, Russia, New Zealand, Turkey, Iran,
Albania, Finland, the Philippines and Madagascar.
Uses
 Chromium is used to harden steel, to manufacture stainless steel
(named as it won’t rust) and to produce several alloys.
 Chromium plating can be used to give a polished mirror finish to steel.
Chromium-plated car and lorry parts, such as bumpers, were once very
common. It is also possible to chromium plate plastics, which are often
used in bathroom fittings.

 About 90% of all leather is tanned using chrome. However, the waste
effluent is toxic so alternatives are being investigated.

 Chromium compounds are used as industrial catalysts and pigments (in

bright green, yellow, red and orange colours). Rubies get their red
colour from chromium, and glass treated with chromium has an
emerald green colour
COBALT

Group 9
 Cobalt was discovered by Georg Brandt, a Swedish
chemist, in 1739. Brandt was attempting to prove that
Period 4 the ability of certain minerals to color glass blue was due
to an unknown element and not to bismuth, as was
Block d commonly believed at the time.

Atomic  Cobalt's primary ores are cobaltite (CoAsS) and erythrite

27
number (Co3(AsO4)2).
1495°C,
Melting Point
2723°F, 1768 K  The name is derived from the German word 'kobald',
meaning goblin.
2927°C,
Boiling Point
5301°F, 3200 K
Characteristics

 Cobalt is a bluish-white, lustrous, hard, brittle metal. It is

ferromagnetic.

 The metal is active chemically, forming many compounds.

 Cobalt is a brittle, hard, silver-grey transition metal with magnetic

properties similar to those of iron (it is ferromagnetic). It has a
high melting point and is hard-wearing even at high temperatures.
Its alloys also possess useful properties and so it finds use in high
speed steels and cutting tools for instance.
Sources

 Cobalt is not found as a free element in nature. It is found in mineral

ores. Cobalt is found in the minerals cobaltite, skutterudite and
erythrite. Important ore deposits are found in DR Congo, Canada,
Australia, Zambia and Brazil. Most cobalt is formed as a by-product
of nickel refining.

 A huge reserve of several transition metals (including cobalt) can be

found in strange nodules on the floors of the deepest oceans. The
nodules are manganese minerals that take millions of years to form,
and together they contain many tons of cobalt.
Uses
 Cobalt, like iron, can be magnetized and so is used to make magnets. It is
alloyed with aluminum and nickel to make particularly powerful magnets.

 Other alloys of cobalt are used in jet turbines and gas turbine generators, where
high-temperature strength is important.

 Cobalt metal is sometimes used in electroplating because of its attractive

appearance, hardness and resistance to corrosion.

 Cobalt salts have been used for centuries to produce brilliant blue colours in
paint, porcelain, glass, pottery and enamels.

 Radioactive cobalt-60 is used to treat cancer and, in some countries, to

irradiate food to preserve it.
COPPER
Group 10

Period 4  Copper derived from the Old English

name 'coper' in turn derived from the
Block d Latin 'Cyprium aes', meaning a metal
Atomic
from Cyprus.
29
number
1084.62°C,  Copper was widely used in the ancient
Melting Point 1984.32°F,
1357.77 K
world as bronze, its alloy with tin, which
was used to make cutlery, coins, and
2560°C,
Boiling Point
4640°F, 2833 K tools. In China it was used for bells.
Characteristics

 Copper is a reddish orange, soft metal that takes on a bright

metallic luster.

 It is malleable, ductile, and an excellent conductor of heat and

electricity - only silver has a higher electrical conductivity than
copper.

 Copper surfaces exposed to air gradually tarnish to a dull, brownish

color.
Sources

 Copper is occasionally found native (i.e. as the uncombined metal),

and is also found in many minerals such as the oxide; cuprite
(Cu2O), the carbonates; malachite (Cu2CO3(OH)2)and azurite
(Cu2(CO3)2(OH)2) and the sulfides; chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and
bornite (Cu5FeS4).

 Copper is obtained from these ores and minerals by smelting,

leaching and electrolysis. The major copper-producing countries are
Chile, Peru and China.
Uses

 Historically, copper was the first metal to be worked by people. The

discovery that it could be hardened with a little tin to form the alloy
bronze gave the name to the Bronze Age.

 Traditionally it has been one of the metals used to make coins, along
with silver and gold. However, it is the most common of the three and
therefore the least valued. All US coins are now copper alloys, and gun
metals also contain copper.

 Most copper is used in electrical equipment such as wiring and motors.

This is because it conducts both heat and electricity very well, and can
be drawn into wires. It also has uses in construction (for example roofing
and plumbing), and industrial machinery (such as heat exchangers).
GOLD

Group 11  Gold is the Anglo-Saxon word for the metal and the symbol
comes from the Latin ‘aurum’, gold.
Period 6  Gold has been known since prehistoric times and was one of
the first metals to be worked, mainly because it was to be
Block d
found as nuggets or as particles in the beds of streams. Such
was the demand that by 2000 BC the Egyptians began
Atomic
79
mining gold. The death mask of Tutankhamen, who died in
number 1323 BC, contained 100 kg of the metal .
1064.18°C,  The minting of gold coins began around 640 BC in the
Melting Point 1947.52°F, Kingdom of Lydia (situated in what is now modern Turkey)
1337.33 K using electrum, a native alloy of gold and silver. The first pure
2836°C, 5137°F, gold coins were minted in the reign of King Croesus, who
Boiling Point
3109 K ruled from 561–547 BC.
Characteristics

 Gold is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity.

 It is a soft, yellow, metal with a beautiful lustrous sheen. It is the most
malleable and ductile of all the elements and a single gram can be
beaten into a sheet one square meter sheet of gold leaf.
 Gold has a very high density, 19.32 g/cm3.
 Gold is unaffected by air, water, alkalis and all acids except aqua
regia (a mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid) which can
dissolve gold. Gold does react with halogens. It will, for example,
react very slowly with chlorine gas at room temperature to form
gold chloride, AuCl3. If gold chloride is heated gently, it will
decompose to release the pure elements again.
Sources
 Gold is found underground and in rivers. The river deposits arise when
gold that was rock-bound is released by erosion of the surrounding rock
by running water. Gold is usually found as a metal alloyed to some
degree with silver or sometimes with mercury as an amalgam. Gold
sizes found on Earth range from sizeable nuggets through tiny grains in
alluvial (river) deposits to microscopic pieces in rocks.
 Gold is one of the few elements to occur in a natural state. It is found in
veins and alluvial deposits. About 1500 tons of gold are mined each
year. About two-thirds of this comes from South Africa and most of the
rest from Russia.

 Seawater contains about 4 grams of gold in 1,000,000 tonnes of water.

Overall this is a huge amount of gold stored in the oceans but, because
the concentration is so low, attempts to reclaim this gold have always
failed.
Uses
 Most mined gold is stored as bullion. It is also, however, used extensively in jewelry,
either in its pure form or as an alloy. The term ‘carat’ indicates the amount of gold
present in an alloy. 24-carat is pure gold, but it is very soft. 18- and 9-carat gold
alloys are commonly used because they are more durable.
 The metal is also used for coinage, and has been used as standard for monetary
systems in some countries.
 Gold can be beaten into very thin sheets (gold leaf) to be used in art, for
decoration and as architectural ornament. Electroplating can be used to cover
another metal with a very thin layer of gold. This is used in gears for watches,
artificial limb joints, cheap jewellery and electrical connectors. It is ideal for
protecting electrical copper components because it conducts electricity well
and does not corrode (which would break the contact). Thin gold wires are used
inside computer chips to produce circuits.
 Dentists sometimes use gold alloys in fillings, and a gold compound is used to
treat some cases of arthritis.
 Gold nanoparticles are increasingly being used as industrial catalysts. Vinyl
acetate, which is used to make PVA (for glue, paint and resin), is made using a
gold catalyst.
LEAD
A dull, silvery-grey metal. It is soft and easily worked into
Group 14 sheets. The name comes from the Anglo-Saxon word for
the metal, 'lead'.
Period 6
HISTORY
Block p
 Lead has been mined for more than 6,000 years. Small
Atomic number 82 lead nuggets have been found in pre-Columbian Peru,
Yucatan, and Guatemala.
State at 20 °C Solid  The Greeks mined lead on a large scale from 650
onwards.
Electron  Lead was the basis of paints for more than 2000 years,
[Xe] 4f145d106s26p2
Configuration until the middle of the last century.
 The Romans employed lead on a large scale, mining it
mainly in Spain and Britain. While its mining declined in
the Dark Ages it reappeared in Medieval times.
NATURAL ABUNDANCE
Lead is chiefly obtained from the mineral galena by a roasting
process. At least 40% of lead in the UK is recycled from secondary sources
such as scrap batteries and pipes.

BIOLOGICAL ROLE
Lead has no known biological role.It can accumulate in the body
and cause serious health problems. It is toxic, teratogenic and
carcinogenic.
USES

 For car batteries, pigments, ammunition, cable

sheathing, weights for lifting, weight belts for diving, lead
crystal glass, radiation protection and in some solders.

 For storing corrosive liquids.

 For roofing and in stained glass windows.

MAGNESIUM
Group 2 HISTORY

Period 3
 The first person to recognise that magnesium was an
element was Joseph Black at Edinburgh in 1755.
 An impure form of metallic magnesium was first produced
Block s
in 1792 by Anton Rupprecht who heated magnesia with
charcoal.
Atomic number 12  A pure, but tiny, amount of the metal was isolated in 1808
by Humphry Davy by the electrolysis of magnesium oxide.
State at 20 °C Solid  French scientist, Antoine-Alexandre-Brutus Bussy made a
sizeable amount of the metal in 1831 by reacting
Electron magnesium chloride with potassium, and he then studied
[Ne] 3s2
Configuration its properties.

A silvery-white metal that ignites easily in air and burns with a bright light.
The name is derived from Magnesia, a district of Eastern Thessaly in Greece.
NATURAL ABUNDANCE
Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element in the Earth’s crust, but does
not occur uncombined in nature. It is found in large deposits in minerals such as
magnesite and dolomite. The sea contains trillions of tonnes of magnesium, and this is the
source of much of the 850,000 tonnes now produced each year. It is prepared by
reducing magnesium oxide with silicon, or by the electrolysis of molten magnesium
chloride.
USES

 aeroplane and car construction

 car seats, luggage, laptops, cameras and power tools
 flares, fireworks and sparklers
 dyes (Magnesium sulphate)
 Plastics (Magnesium hydroxide)
 bricks for fireplaces and furnaces (Magnesium oxide)
 cattle feed and fertilisers
 medicine
MANGANESE

Group 7

Period 4
 The derivation of Manganese may have come from one
Block d of two routes: either from the Latin 'magnes', meaning
magnet, or from the black magnesium oxide, 'magnesia
Atomic number 25 nigra'.

State at 20 °C Solid  Manganese is a hard, brittle, silvery metal.

Electron
[Ar] 3d54s2
Configuration
HISTORY

 Manganese in the form of the black ore pyrolucite (manganese dioxide,

MnO2) was used by the pre-historic cave painters of the Lascaux region of
France around 30,000 years ago.
 Manganese was used by glass makers to remove the pale greenish tint of
natural glass
 In 1740, the Berlin glass technologist Johann Heinrich Pott was able to make
potassium permanganate (KMnO4).
 The first person to isolate the metal component in pyrolusite is the Swedish
chemist and mineralogist Johan Gottlieb Gahn in 1774. However, a student
at Vienna, Ignatius Kaim, had already described how he had produced
manganese metal, in his dissertation written in 1771.
NATURAL ABUNDANCE

 Manganese is the fifth most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust. Its minerals are widely distributed,
with pyrolusite (manganese dioxide) and rhodochrosite (manganese carbonate) being the most
common.
 The main mining areas for manganese are in China, Africa, Australia and Gabon. The metal is
obtained by reducing the oxide with sodium, magnesium or aluminium, or by the electrolysis of
manganese sulfate.
 Manganese nodules have been found on the floor of the oceans. These nodules contain about 24%
manganese, along with smaller amounts of many other elements.

BIOLOGICAL ROLE

Manganese is an essential element in all known living organisms. Many types of enzymes contain
manganese.
Some soils have low levels of manganese and so it is added to some fertilisers and given as a food
supplement to grazing animals.

The average human body contains about 12 milligrams of manganese. We take in about 4
milligrams each day from such foods as nuts, bran, wholegrain cereals, tea and parsley. Without it,
bones grow spongier and break more easily. It is also essential for utilisation of vitamin B1.
USES

 railway tracks, safes, rifle barrels and prison bars

 Drinks cans
 Ceramics
 fertilisers
 Manganese oxide is used as a catalyst, a rubber additive and to decolourise
glass that is coloured green by iron impurities.
 Manganese sulfate is used to make a fungicide
 Manganese(II) oxide is a powerful oxidising agent and is used in quantitative
analysis.
MOLYBDENUM
• Molybdenum is a silvery-white metal that is ductile and highly resistant to
corrosion. It has one of the highest melting points of all pure elements.

Source:
• The main molybdenum ore is molybdenite
(molybdenum disulfide), but can also be
found in wulfenite (lead molybdate) and
powellite (calcium molybdate).

• It is recovered as a by-product of copper or

tungsten mining. Molybdenum is mined
primarily in the United States, China, Chile
and Peru. World production is around 200,000
tons per year.
Applications:
 Most commercial molybdenum is used in the production of alloys,
where it is added to increase hardness, strength, electrical
conductivity and resistance to wear and corrosion.
 Small amounts of molybdenum can be found in a wide variety of
products: missiles, engine parts, drills, saw blades, electric heater
filaments, lubricant additives, ink for circuit boards and protective
coatings in boilers. It is also used as a catalyst in the petroleum
industry.
 Due to its high melting point, molybdenum performs incredibly well
under very high temperatures. It is particularly useful in products that
need to stay lubricated under these extreme temperatures.
NICKEL
• Nickel is a strong, lustrous, silvery-white metal.

• It is very strong and resistant to corrosion,

making it excellent for strengthening
metal alloys. It is also very ductile
and malleable, properties that allow its many
alloys to be shaped into wire, rods, tubes, and
sheets.

Source:
• Nickel is primarily extracted from the nickel
sulfides pentlandite, pyrrhotite, and millerite,
which contain about 1% nickel content, and
the iron-containing lateritic ores limonite and
garnierite, which contain about 4% nickel
content.
Applications:
 Nickel is one of the most widely used metals on the planet. According to the
Nickel Institute, the metal is used in over 300,000 different products. Most often
it is found in steels and metal alloys, but it is also used in the production of
batteries and permanent magnets.
 About 65% of all nickel produced goes into stainless steel.
 Austenitic steels are non-magnetic stainless steels that contain high levels
of chromium and nickel, and low levels of carbon. Austenitic steels are the
most widely used grade of stainless steel.
USES

 A copper-nickel alloy is commonly used in desalination plants, which

convert seawater into fresh water.
 Nickel steel is used for armour plating.
 boat propeller shafts and turbine blades
 batteries, including rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries and
nickel-metal hydride batteries used in hybrid vehicles
 PLATINUM
 Platinum is a silverish-white transition metal which is
dense, malleable, ductile, highly unreactive. Its name is derived from
the Spanish term platino, meaning "little silver".

Source:
 It is one of the rarer elements in Earth's crust,
with an average abundance of approximately
5 μg/kg.
 It occurs in some nickel and copper ores
along with some native deposits, mostly
in South Africa, which accounts for 80% of the
world production. Because of its scarcity in
Earth's crust, only a few hundred tonnes are
produced annually, and given its important
uses, it is highly valuable and is a
major precious metal commodity
Applications:
 Jewellery
 catalytic converters for cars, trucks and buses
 catalyst for the production of nitric acid, silicone and benzene.
 optical fibres and LCDs, turbine blades, spark plugs, pacemakers and
dental fillings
 Used in chemotherapy drugs used to treat cancers.
SILVER
 Silver has the symbol Ag, from the Latin
argentum, derived from the Greek ὰργὀς (literally
"shiny" or "white“).
 A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits
the highest electrical conductivity, thermal
conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal.
Source:
 The metal is found in the Earth's crust in the pure,
free elemental form ("native silver"), as an alloy
with gold and other metals, and in minerals such
as argentite and chlorargyrite.
Sources:
Silver is found in elemental form and also in various ores such as argentite (silver
sulfide, Ag2S) and horn silver (silver chloride, AgCl). Commercially, the main sources of
silver are copper, copper-nickel, gold, lead, and lead-zinc ores.

APPLICATIONS:

• Currency • Glass coatings

• Jewelry and silverware • Telescopic mirrors
• Solar energy • Medicine
• Air conditioning
• Water purification
• Dentistry
• Electronics
TIN
 Tin is a chemical element with the symbol Sn (for
Latin: stannum It is obtained chiefly from the mineral
cassiterite, which contains tin dioxide, SnO2.

SOURCE:

• Cassiterite (SnO2), the tin oxide form of tin, was

most likely the original source of tin in ancient
times. Other forms of tin ores are less
abundant sulfides such as stannite that require
a more involved smelting process.

• Cassiterite often accumulates in alluvial

channels as placer deposits because it is
harder, heavier, and more chemically
resistant than the accompanying granite.
Properties:
• Tin is nontoxic, ductile, malleable, and adapted to all kinds of cold-working, such
as rolling, spinning, and extrusion.
• The low melting point of tin and its firm adhesion to clean surfaces of iron, steel, copper,
and copper alloys facilitate its use as an oxidation-resistant coating material.

Applications:
• Tin-plating of iron protects the latter from corrosion
• Tin piping and valves maintain purity in water and beverages
• Molten tin is the base for (float) plate-glass production.
TITANIUM
 Titanium is a silvery gray metal that is lightweight, high-strength, low-corrosive
structural metal and is used in alloy form for parts in high-speed aircraft.

Source:

 Titanium is present in the Earth’s crust at

a level of about 0.6%. Titanium is always
bonded to other elements in nature.
 It is present in most igneous rocks and in
sediments derived from them. It is widely
distributed and occurs primarily in the
minerals anatase, brookite, ilmenite,
perovskite, rutile and titanite (sphene).
 The most important mineral sources are
ilmenite (FeTiO3) and rutile (TiO2).
APPLICATIONS
Aerospace and Marine

• Because of their high tensile strength, high corrosion resistance, fatigue resistance,
high crack resistance and ability to withstand moderately high temperatures without
creeping, titanium alloys are used in aircraft, armor plating, naval ships, spacecraft,
and missiles.
• Because it is highly resistant to corrosion by sea water, titanium is used to make
propeller shafts, rigging, and heat exchangers in desalination plants; heater-chillers for
salt water aquariums, fishing line and leader, and divers' knives.
Industrial
• Welded titanium pipe and process equipment
(heat exchangers, tanks, process vessels,
valves) are used in the chemical and
petrochemical industries primarily for corrosion
resistance. Other applications include:
ultrasonic welding, wave soldering, and
sputtering targets.

Nuclear waste storage

• Because of its excellent corrosion resistance,
titanium containers have been studied for the
long-term storage of nuclear waste.
Containers lasting more than 100,000 years are
possible with manufacturing conditions that
minimize material defects. A titanium "drip
shield" could also be installed over containers
of other types to enhance their longevity.
TUNGSTEN
• Tungsten is a greyish-white lustrous metal, which is a solid at room temperature.

• Tungsten has the highest melting point and lowest vapor pressure of all metals, and
at temperatures over 1650°C has the highest tensile strength. It has excellent
corrosion resistance and is attacked only slightly by most mineral acids.

Source:
• Tungsten is not found free in nature. The principal
ores of tungsten are wolframite
(an iron manganese tungstate) and scheelite
(calcium tungstate, CaWO3). Commercially, the
metal is obtained by reducing tungsten oxide
with hydrogen or carbon.
Applications
 Tungsten and its alloys are used in many high-
temperature applications, such as arc-
welding electrodes and heating elements in
high-temperature furnaces.
 Tungsten carbide is immensely hard and is
very important to the metal-working, mining
and petroleum industries. It is made by mixing
tungsten powder and carbon powder and
heating to 2200°C. It makes excellent cutting
and drilling tools, including a new ‘painless’
dental drill which spins at ultra-high speeds.
 Calcium and magnesium tungstates are
widely used in fluorescent lighting.
VANADIUM
• Vanadium is a hard, silvery grey, ductile, and
malleable transition metal.

• The elemental metal is rarely found in nature,

but once isolated artificially, the formation of
an oxide layer (passivation) stabilizes the free
metal somewhat against further oxidation

Source:
• Vanadium is not found free in nature but is
found combined in about 65 different
minerals. Vanadium is also found in bauxite
and in fossil fuel deposits. Commercially,
production of the metal is by calcium
reduction of the pentoxide.
Applications:
• The main use of vanadium is in alloys,
especially with steel. 85% of all the vanadium
produced goes into steel, 10% goes into
alloys of titanium and 5% into all other uses. 7
• Vanadium steel alloys are used in gears,
axles and crankshafts.
• Titanium-aluminum-vanadium alloy is used in
jet engines and for high-speed aircraft.
• Vanadium foil is used in cladding titanium to
steel.
• Vanadium-gallium tape is used in
superconducting magnets.
ZINC
• Zinc is a chemical element with symbol Zn and
atomic number 30. It is the first element in group
12 of the periodic table. In some respects zinc is
chemically similar to magnesium: both
elements exhibit only one normal oxidation
state (+2), and the Zn2+ and Mg2+ ions are of
similar size.

Source:
• Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in
Earth's crust and has five stable isotopes. The
most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc
blende), a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest
workable lodes are in Australia, Asia, and the
United States. Zinc is refined by froth flotation of
the ore, roasting, and final extraction using
electricity (electrowinning).
APPLICATIONS
 Major applications of zinc include:
 Galvanizing (55%)
 Brass and bronze (16%)
 Other alloys (21%)
 Miscellaneous (8%)

 Anti-corrosion and batteries

 Alloys
 Other industrial uses
 Dietary supplement
 Zinc lozenges and the common cold
 Topical use
 Organic chemistry
ALLOYS:
BRASS
Brass is a metal alloy made of copper and zinc; the proportions of zinc and
copper can be varied to create a range of brasses with varying properties. It is
a substitutional alloy: atoms of the two constituents may replace each other within the
same crystal structure.

By comparison, bronze is principally an alloy of copper and tin. However,

bronze and brass may also include small proportions of a range of
other elements including arsenic, phosphorus, aluminium, manganese, and silicon. The
term is also applied to a variety of brasses, and the distinction is largely
historical. Modern practice in museums and archaeology increasingly avoids both
terms for historical objects in favour of the all-embracing "copper alloy".
Uses of Brass
 Brass is used for decoration for its bright gold-like appearance; for
applications where low friction is required such as locks, gears,
bearings, doorknobs, ammunition casings and valves; for plumbing
and electrical applications; and extensively in brass musical
instruments such as horns and bells where a combination of high
workability (historically with hand tools) and durability is desired. It is
also used in zippers. Brass is often used in situations in which it is
important that sparks not be struck, such as in fittings and tools used
near flammable or explosive materials
 PHOSPOR BRONZE

TIN-BRONZE GUN METAL

 Tin's principal function is to strengthen these bronze alloys. Tin bronze is strong
and hard and has very high ductility. This combination of properties gives them
a high load-carrying capacity, good wear resistance, and the ability to
withstand pounding. The alloys are noted for their corrosion resistance in
seawater and brines. Common industrial applications include fittings used to
550 F, gears, bushings, bearings, pump impellers, and many more.
 UNDER BRASS AND TIN BRONZE ARE PHOSPHOR BRONZE AND GUN METAL

PHOSPHOR BRONZE

 Phosphor bronze is an alloy of copper with 0.5–

11% of tin and up to 0.01-0.35% phosphorus. The
tin increases the corrosion resistance and
strength of the alloy. The phosphorous increases
the wear resistance and stiffness of the alloy.

 These alloys are notable for

their toughness, strength, low coefficient of
friction, and fine grain. The phosphorus reduces
the viscosity of the molten alloy, which makes it
easier and cleaner to cast and reduces grain
boundaries between crystallites.
GUN METAL

 Gunmetal, also known as red brass in the United

States, is a type of bronze –
an alloy of copper, tin and zinc. Proportions vary by
source, but 88% copper, 8-10% tin and 2-4% zinc is an
approximation.
 Gunmetal, which casts and machines well and is
resistant to corrosion from steam and salt water,is
used to make steam and hydraulic castings, valves,
gears, statues and various small objects, such as
buttons. It has a tensile strength of 221 to 310 MPa, a
specific gravity of 8.7, a density 8,719 kg/m3, a Brinell
hardness of 65 to 74, and a melting point of around
1000 degrees Celsius.
ALUMINUM BRONZE

Aluminum bronze is a type of bronze in

which aluminum is the main alloying metal added
to copper, in contrast to standard bronze (copper
and tin) or brass (copper and zinc) .
A variety of aluminum bronzes of differing
compositions have found industrial use, with most
ranging from 5% to 11% aluminum by weight, the
remaining mass being copper; other alloying
agents such as iron, nickel, manganese,
and silicon are also sometimes added to aluminum
bronzes.
COMPOSITION OF ALUMINUM BRONZE ALLOY:

The following table lists the most common standard aluminum bronze
wrought alloy compositions, by ISO 428 designations. The percentages show the
proportional composition of the alloy by weight. Copper is the remainder by weight
and is not listed:

Manganes
Alloy Aluminum Iron Nickel Zinc Arsenic
e

CuAl5 4.0–6.5% 0.5% max. 0.8% max. 0.5% max. 0.5% max. 0.4% max.

CuAl8 7.0–9.0% 0.5% max. 0.8% max. 0.5% max. 0.5% max.

CuAl8Fe3 6.5–8.5% 1.5–3.5% 1.0% max. 0.8% max. 0.5% max.

CuAl9Mn2 8.0–10.0% 1.5% max. 0.8% max. 1.5–3.0% 0.5% max.

CuAl10Fe3 8.5–11.0% 2.0–4.0% 1.0% max. 2.0% max. 0.5% max.

CuAl10Fe5
8.5–11.5% 2.0–6.0% 4.0–6.0% 2.0% max. 0.5% max.
Ni5
APPLICATIONS
 Aluminum bronzes are most commonly used in applications where their
resistance to corrosion makes them preferable to other engineering materials.
These applications include plain bearings and landing gear components
on aircraft, guitar strings, engine components (especially for seagoing ships),
underwater fastenings in naval architecture, and ship propellers. Aluminium
bronze is also used to fulfil the ATEX directive for Zones 1, 2, 21, and 22. The
attractive gold-toned coloration of aluminium bronzes has also led to their use
in jewellery.
 Aluminium bronzes are in the highest demand from the following industries and
areas:
• General sea water-related service
• Water supply
• Oil and petrochemical industries (i.e. tools for use in non-sparking environments)
• Specialized anti-corrosive applications
• Certain structural retrofit building applications
 Aluminium bronze can be welded using the MIG welding technique with an
aluminium bronze core and pure argon gas.

 Aluminium bronze is used to replace gold for the casting of dental crowns.
The alloys used are chemically inert and have the appearance of gold.

 Alloys similar to aluminium bronze are used in making coins, for example the
20, 200 and 500 Italian Lire, the one and two dollar coins
of Australian and New Zealand currency produced by the Royal Australian
Mint, some Mexican coins and the Nordic gold used for some Euro coins.
The Canadian 2 dollar coin, produced by the Royal Canadian Mint and
circulated since 1996, is a bi-metallic piece with an outer ring of nickel-
plated steel and an inner circle of Aluminium bronze composed of 92%
copper, 6% Aluminium, and 2% nickel (also known as Bronzital).
 CUPRO-NICKEL ALLOYS

 Cupronickel (also known as copper-nickel) is an alloy of copper that contains nickel and
strengthening elements, such as iron and manganese. Despite its high copper content,
cupronickel is silver in colour.
 Cupronickel is highly resistant to corrosion in seawater because its electrode potential is
adjusted to be neutral with regard to seawater.
 A common use of cupronickel is in silver-coloured modern-circulated coins. A typical mix
is 75% copper, 25% nickel, and a trace amount of manganese. In the past, true
silver coins were debased with cupronickel.

Other terms for cupro-nickel

Aside from the terms cupronickel and copper-nickel, several other terms have been used to
describe the material: the tradenames Alpakaor Alpacca, Argentan Minargent, and the
French term cuivre blanc ("white copper") are still registered; cupronickel is also occasionally referred
to as hotel silver, plata alemana (Spanish for "German silver"),German silver, and Chinese silver.
PROPERTIES
Important properties of cupronickel alloys include corrosion resistance, inherent resistance
to macrofouling, good tensile strength, excellent ductility when annealed, thermal
conductivity and expansion characteristics amenable for heat exchangers and condensers, good
thermal conductivity and ductility at cryogenic temperatures and beneficial antimicrobial touch
surface properties.

Properties of some Cu–Ni alloys

Thermal Electrical Elastic Yield Tensile

Density TEC
Alloy conductivity resistivity modulus strength strength
g/cm3 µm/(m·K)
W/(m·K) µOhm·cm GPa MPa MPa

90-10 8.9 40 17 19 135 105 275

70-30 8.95 29 16 34 152 125 360

66-30-2-2 8.86 25 15.5 50 156 170 435

The alloys are:

UNS standard compositions* of wrought alloys (in at%). Maximum or range.

Common European
Alloy UNS No. Ni Fe Mn Cu
name spec

C70600 90-10 CuNi10Fe 9-11 1-1.8 1 Remainder

C71500 70-30 CuNi30Fe 29–33 0.4–1.0 1 Remainder

C71640 66-30-2-2 29–32 1.7–2.3 1.5–2.5 Remainder

 These values may vary in other standards

PROPERTIES

 Subtle differences in corrosion resistance and strength determine which alloy is

selected. Descending the table, the maximum allowable flow rate in piping increases,
as does the tensile strength.

 In seawater, the alloys have excellent corrosion rates which remain low as long as the
maximum design flow velocity is not exceeded. This velocity depends on geometry
and pipe diameter. They have high resistance to crevice corrosion, stress corrosion
cracking and hydrogen embrittlement that can be troublesome to other alloy
systems. Copper-nickels naturally form a thin protective surface layer over the first
several weeks of exposure to seawater and this provides its ongoing resistance.

 Additionally, they have a high inherent biofouling resistance to attachment by

macrofoulers (e.g.seagrasses and mollusks) living in the seawater. To use this property
to its full potential, the alloy needs to be free of the effects of, or insulated from, any
form of cathodic protection.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS

 Aluminum and its alloys are characterized by a relatively low density (2.7
g/cm3 as compared to 7.9 g/cm3 for steel), high electrical and thermal
conductivities, and a resistance to corrosion in some common
environments, including the ambient atmosphere. Many of these alloys are
easily formed by virtue of high ductility; this is evidenced by the thin
aluminum foil sheet into which the relatively pure material may be rolled.

 The mechanical strength of aluminum may be enhanced by cold work

and by alloying.
CLASSIFICATION OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS

ALUMINUM ALLOYS

Wrought Cast

(ex: 5183) (ex: 356.0)

Heat- Treatable Non Heat- Treatable

Wrought Alloy Designation System

-a 4-digit wrought aluminum alloy identification system (xxxx).

Wrought Aluminum Alloy Designation System

Alloy Series Principal Alloying Element

1xx 99.000% Minimum Aluminum

2xx Copper

3xx Manganese

4xx Silicon

5xx Magnesium

6xx Magnesium and Silicon

7xx Zinc

8xx Other Elements

 The first digit (Xxxx) indicates the principal alloying element, which has been
added to the aluminum alloy and is often used to describe the aluminum alloy
series.
The second single digit (xXxx), if different from 0, indicates a modification of the
specific alloy, and the third and fourth digits (xxXX) are arbitrary numbers given to
identify a specific alloy in the series.

 In alloy 5183;
5 - Indicates that it is of the magnesium alloy series.
1 - Indicates that it is the 1st modification to the original alloy 5083.
83 - Identifies it in the 5xxx series.

The only exception to this alloy numbering system is with the 1xxx series
aluminum alloys (pure aluminums) in which case, the last 2 digits provide the
minimum aluminum percentage above 99%,
i.e., Alloy 1350 (99.50% minimum aluminum).
Cast Alloy Designation System

-a 3 digit-plus decimal designation (xxx.x).

Alloy Series Principal Alloying Element

1xx.x 99.000% minimum Aluminum

2xx.x Copper

3xx.x Silicon Plus Copper and/or Magnesium

4xx.x Silicon

5xx.x Magnesium

6xx.x Unused Series

7xx.x Zinc

8xx.x Tin

9xx.x Other Elements

 The first digit (Xxx.x) indicates the principal alloying element, which has
been added to the aluminum alloy.
The second and third digits (xXX.x) are arbitrary numbers given to
identify a specific alloy in the series. The number following the decimal point
indicates whether the alloy is a casting (.0) or an ingot (.1 or .2). A capital
letter prefix indicates a modification to a specific alloy.

 Example: Alloy - A356.0

A - indicates a modification of alloy 356.0.
3 - indicates that it is of the silicon plus copper and/or
magnesium series.
56 - identifies the alloy within the 3xx.x series.
.0 - indicates that it is a final shape casting and not an ingot.
 The Aluminum Temper Designation System

 Heat Treatable Aluminum Alloys

- acquire their optimum mechanical properties through a process of
thermal treatment, the most common thermal treatments being Solution Heat
Treatment and Artificial Aging. Many heat treatable aluminum alloys are used for
welding fabrication in their solution heat treated and artificially aged condition.
 Non-Heat Treatable Aluminum Alloys
- alloys acquire their optimum mechanical properties through Strain
Hardening. Strain hardening is the method of increasing strength through the
application of cold working.

The Temper Designation System addresses the material conditions called tempers. The Temper
Designation System is an extension of the alloy numbering system and consists of a series of letters
and numbers which follow the alloy designation number and are connected by a hyphen.
Examples: 6061-T6, 6063-T4, 5052-H32, 5083-H112.
THE BASIC TEMPER DESIGNATIONS

Letter Meaning

As fabricated – Applies to products of a forming process in which no special control

F
over thermal or strain hardening conditions is employed

Annealed – Applies to product which has been heated to produce the lowest
O
strength condition to improve ductility and dimensional stability

Strain Hardened – Applies to products which are strengthened through cold-working.

The strain hardening may be followed by supplementary thermal treatment, which
H
produces some reduction in strength. The “H” is always followed by two or more digits
(see table 4)

Solution Heat-Treated – An unstable temper applicable only to alloys which age

W
spontaneously at room temperature after solution heat-treatment

Thermally Treated - To produce stable tempers other than F, O, or H. Applies to

product which has been heat-treated, sometimes with supplementary strain-
T
hardening, to produce a stable temper. The “T” is always followed by one or more
digits (see table 5)
Further to the basic temper designation, there are two subdivision categories, one addressing the
“H” Temper – Strain Hardening, and the other addressing the “T” Temper – Thermally Treated
designation.

Table 4 - Subdivisions Of H Temper – Strain Hardened

The first digit after the H indicates a basic operation:

H1 – Strain Hardened Only.

H2 – Strain Hardened and Partially Annealed.
H3 – Strain Hardened and Stabilized.
H4 – Strain Hardened and Lacquered or Painted.

The second digit after the H indicates the degree of strain hardening:
Hx2 – Quarter Hard
Hx4 – Half Hard
Hx6 – Three-Quarters Hard
Hx8 – Full Hard
Hx9 – Extra Hard
 Table 4 - Subdivisions Of H Temper – Strain Hardened

The first digit after the H indicates a basic operation:

H1 – Strain Hardened Only.

H2 – Strain Hardened and Partially Annealed.
H3 – Strain Hardened and Stabilized.
H4 – Strain Hardened and Lacquered or Painted.

The second digit after the H indicates the degree of strain hardening:

Hx2 – Quarter Hard

Hx4 – Half Hard
Hx6 – Three-Quarters Hard
Hx8 – Full Hard
Hx9 – Extra Hard

Additional digits indicate stress relief.

Examples:
TX51 or TXX51 – Stress relieved by stretching.
TX52 or TXX52 – Stress relieved by compressing.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
If we consider the seven series of wrought aluminum alloys, we will appreciate their
differences and understand their applications and characteristics.

 1xxx Series Alloys

• non-heat treatable
• often referred to as the pure aluminum series
• ultimate tensile strength of 10 to 27 ksi.
• weldable.
• have narrow melting range (require certain considerations in order to produce
acceptable welding procedures).
• selected primarily for their superior corrosion resistance.
• Specialized chemical tanks
• Piping
• have relatively poor mechanical properties
• excellent electrical conductivity

These alloys have relatively poor mechanical properties and would seldom be
considered for general structural applications. These base alloys are often welded with
matching filler material or with 4xxx filler alloys dependent on application and performance
requirements.
 2xxx Series Alloys

• heat treatable
• ultimate tensile strength of 27 to 62 ksi
• are aluminum / copper alloys (copper additions ranging from 0.7 to 6.8%)
• high strength
• alloys that are often used for aerospace and aircraft applications.
• Some are non-weldable (because of their susceptibility to hot cracking and stress
corrosion cracking); however, others are arc welded very successfully with the
correct welding procedures.

These base materials are often welded with high strength 2xxx series filler alloys
designed to match their performance, but can sometimes be welded with the 4xxx series
fillers containing silicon or silicon and copper, dependent on the application and service
requirements.
 3xxx Series Alloys

• non-heat treatable
• ultimate tensile strength of 16 to 41 ksi
• are aluminum / manganese alloys (manganese additions ranging from
0.05 to 1.8%)
• are of moderate strength
• have good corrosion resistance
• good formability, suited for use at elevated temperatures

One of their first uses was pots and pans, and they are the major
component today for heat exchangers in vehicles and power plants. Their
moderate strength, however, often precludes their consideration for structural
applications. These base alloys are welded with 1xxx, 4xxx and 5xxx series filler alloys,
dependent on their specific chemistry and particular application and service
requirements.
  4xxx Series Alloys

• only series which contain both heat treatable and non-heat treatable
alloys.
• ultimate tensile strength of 25 to 55 ksi
• are the aluminum / silicon alloys (silicon additions ranging from 0.6 to
21.5%)

Silicon, when added to aluminum, reduces its melting point and improves its fluidity
when molten. These characteristics are desirable for filler materials used for both fusion
welding and brazing. Consequently, this series of alloys is predominantly found as filler
material. Silicon, independently in aluminum, is non-heat treatable; however, a number of
these silicon alloys have been designed to have additions of magnesium or copper, which
provides them with the ability to respond favorably to solution heat treatment. Typically, these
heat treatable filler alloys are used only when a welded component is to be subjected to post
weld thermal treatments.
 5xxx Series Alloys

• non-heat treatable
• ultimate tensile strength of 18 to 51 ksi
• are the aluminum / magnesium alloys (magnesium additions ranging
from 0.2 to 6.2%)
• have the highest strength of the non-heat treatable alloys
• readily weldable
• used for a variety of applications
• shipbuilding
• transportation
• pressure vessels
• bridges
• buildings

Alloys in this series with more than 3.0% magnesium are not recommended for
elevated temperature service above 150 deg F because of their potential for sensitization and
subsequent susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking.
 6xxx Series Alloys

• heat treatable
• ultimate tensile strength of 18 to 58 ksi
• aluminum / magnesium - silicon alloys (magnesium and silicon additions
of around 1.0%)
• naturally solidification crack sensitive (they should not be arc welded
autogenously, without filler material)

These alloys are found widely throughout the welding fabrication industry, used
predominantly in the form of extrusions, and incorporated in many structural components. The
addition of magnesium and silicon to aluminum produces a compound of magnesium-silicide,
which provides this material its ability to become solution heat treated for improved strength.
They are welded with both 4xxx and 5xxx filler materials, dependent on the application and
service requirements.
 7xxx Series Alloys

• heat treatable
• ultimate tensile strength of 32 to 88 ksi
• aluminum / zinc alloys (zinc additions ranging from 0.8 to 12.0%)
• comprise some of the highest strength aluminum alloys

These alloys are often used in high performance applications such as aircraft,
aerospace, and competitive sporting equipment. Like the 2xxx series of alloys, this series
incorporates alloys which are considered unsuitable candidates for arc welding, and others,
which are often arc welded successfully. The commonly welded alloys in this series, such as
7005, are predominantly welded with the 5xxx series filler alloys.