AC INSTRUMENTS

prepared by
SENTOT PURBADI

1
 Introduction

Safe, economical, and reliable operation of modern aircraft is

dependent upon the use of instruments. The first instruments were fuel
and oil instrument to warn of engine trouble so that the aircraft could
be landed before the engine failed.

Instrument is basically the science of measurement. Speed,

distance, altitude, attitude, direction, temperature, pressure and rpm
are measured and these measurements are displayed on dials in the
cockpit.

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 PENDAHULUAN

Keamanan, ekonomi, dan keandalan pengoperasian pesawat udara

tergantung pada penggunaan instrument. Istrument pertama adalah pengukur
bahan bakar dan tekanan oil, sehingga pesawat dapat didaratkan sebelum
engine gagal

Pada dasarnya instrument merupakan ilmu pengukuran. Kecepatan, jarak,

kecepatan putar diukur kemudian di displaykan pada dial di cokpit

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Mechanical/electronic instrument is a tool that meets academic
requirements, so it can be used as a tool to measure a measuring
object or collect data about a variable

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 Instrument philosophy

• Accurate
• Real-time
• Reliable
• Sensitive
• Compact
• Easy to read
• Resist to temperature variable
• etc

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 Filosophy Instrument

• Teliti
• Segera menampilkan hasil (Real-time)
• Handal (Reliable)
• Sensitif (Sensitive)
• Kompak (Compact)
• Mudah dibaca (Easy to read)
• Tahan terhadap perubahan temperature (Resist to
temperature variable)
• Dll

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 Elements of An Instrument

DETECTING MEASURING COUPLING INDICATING

ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT

1. Detecting element, element that detect changes in value of the physical

quantity or condition presented to it, sometimes is called sensor

2. Measuring element, element actually measures the value of the physical

quantity or condition in term of small translation or angular displacement.

3. Coupling element, by which displacement are magnified and transmitted

4. Indicating element, which exhibits the value of the measured quantity

transmitted by coupling element

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 Element-element pada sebuah Instrument

DETECTING MEASURING COUPLING INDICATING

ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT

1. Detecting element, element yang mendeteksi perubahan nilai atau keadaan

yang akan diukur sering disebut sensor

2. Measuring element, element yang mengukur nilai yang akan diukur, dapat
berupakan gerakan translasi atau gerarakan putar.

3. Coupling element, suatu element yang merubah garakan dari measuring

element agar dapat ditampilkan di indicator

4. Indicating element, element yang menampilkan nilai yang diukur tadi

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Example of Instrument Elements

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Example of Instrument Elements

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 Sensor Measurement Coupling

Display

Instrument case

Direct sensing instrument systems

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 Sensor Measurement Coupling

Display

Instrument case

Direct sensing instrument systems

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Sensor Measurement Coupling

Display

Instrument case

Remote sensing instrument

Sensor Measurement Coupling

Display

Instrument case

Remote sensing instrument

 General Rules
This rules are used to aircraft mechanics
 Don’t open instrument
– Any internal problem, send it in for repair
– Can paint the outside
– Can make markings on the outside
• A white slippage mark must be place on glass/case
– Can repair outside wires, tubes and connectors
– Must be repaired by a certificated repair station approved for a specific class
instrument
 Label inoperable instruments
– Place label on instrument
• Document with a trouble ticket
 General Rules
Peraturan untuk mekanik pesawat
 Jangan membuka casing instrument
 Setiap masalah internal, kirim ke shop untuk di repair
 Boleh mengecat bagian luar
 Boleh membuat marking pada bagian luar
 Slippage mmarking putih harus diletakan pada bawah kaca/case
 Memperbaiki harus pada repair station yang bersertifikat untuk kelas instrument
tersebut, dan oleh repairmen yang bersetifikat pula
 Pasang Label untuk intrumentasi yang tidak berfungsi
 Pada instrument dan
 Pada dokemunen perawatan
Contoh aircraft instrument

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Slippage marking
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 General Rules

 Markings and graduations are made according to the Aircraft Manufacturer

– Aircraft Specification or Type Certificate Data Sheet
– Maintenance manual
– Flight manual
 Marks
– Red radial line – minimum or maximum
– Green – normal
– Yellow – caution
– Not specified by Title 14
 General Rules

 Range marking dibuat berdasarkan Aircraft Manufacturer

– Aircraft Specification or Type Certificate Data Sheet
– Maintenance manual
– Flight manual
 Warna range marking
– Red radial line – nilai minimum or maximum
– Green – operasi normal
– Yellow – perhatian/caution
– Tidak diatur pada CASR
 Instrument Case

• Authority say – “Cases for electrically operated instruments are made of

iron or steel; these materials provide a path for stray magnetic force fields
that would otherwise interfere with radio and electronic devices.

• Case usually made of iron/steel

– Protect against magnetic and electrical fields

 Instrument Case

• Aturan authority, Casing untuk instrument

yang beroperasi secara listrik/electronic
harus terbuat dari iron/steel untuk berfungsi
mencegah interfernsi medan listrik atau
magnet
 Instrument Case
• Mounting

– Flanges

• Mount from the front

– Flangeless

• Uses a expanding type of clamp secured to the rear face of the

panel

– Slide in cases

• Almost all radios

 Macam bentuk Instrument Case
• Mounting

– Flanges

• Mount from the front

– Flangeless

• Uses a expanding type of clamp secured to the rear face of the

panel

– Slide in cases

• Almost all radios

Instrument mounts— flanged (right) and flangeless (left).

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Instrument mounts— flanged (right) and flangeless (left).

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Instrument panels
Instrument panel

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Instrument panel mounting

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Instrument panel mounting

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 Instrument Cases, a typical instrument can be
compared to a clock, in that the instrument has:
3. Pointer or hand

1. A mechanics, or a works;

2. A dial, or face 4. A cover glass

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 Instrument Cases, bila dibandingkan dengan
sebuah jam, dia mempunyai:
3. Pointer or hand

1. A mechanics, or a works;

2. A dial, or face 4. A cover glass

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 Classification of AC Instruments

 Grouping according to the job they perform:

1. Flight Instruments

2. Engine Instruments

3. Navigation Instruments

4. Auxiliary Instrument

 Grouping according to the principle of which they work:

1. Operate in relation to change in temperature or fluid pressure

2. Magnetism and electricity

3. Gyroscopic action
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 Klasifikasi AC Instruments

 Groupi berdasarlan tugas yang dilakukan :

1. Flight Instruments

2. Engine Instruments

3. Navigation Instruments

4. Auxiliary Instrument

 Group berdasarkan prinsip instrument tersebut bekerja:

1. Operate in relation to change in temperature or fluid pressure

2. Magnetism and electricity

3. Gyroscopic action
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 Questions
• Tell the part of an instrument and describe these function?
• Describe what is the direct sensing instrument!
• Describe what is the remote sensing instrument!
• Tell the instrument grouping according to the job they perform!
• Tell the instrument grouping according to the principle of which
they work
• If we compare with a clock, an instrument has …….., ………………,
……………., and …………

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 Flight Instruments

 The instruments that aid in controlling the flight attitude of the aircraft
are known as flight instruments. Since the instruments must provide
information instantaneously, they are located on main instrument panel
within ready visual reference of the pilot.
 Basic flight instruments are the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and
magnetic direction indicator.
 In addition some aircrafts have a rate of climb indictor, rate of turn
indicator, a bank indicator and artificial horizon indicator.
 Flight instruments are operated by atmospheric, impact, differential
and static pressure, or by gyroscopic.

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 Engine Instruments

 Engine instrument are designed to measure the quantity and pressure of

liquids (fuel and oil) and gasses (manifold pressure), rpm and temperature.

 The engine instruments usually include a fuel and oil pressure gage, oil
temperature gage, a fuel quantity gage, and tachometer,

 In addition some aircrafts that are powered by reciprocating engines are

equipped by manifold pressure gauge(s), cylinder head temperature(s),
carburetor air temperature gauge(s).

 Gas turbine powered aircrafts will have a turbine temperature gauge(s),

and may have an exhaust pressure ratio indicator

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 Aircraft Engine Instruments

Common engine instruments. Note: For example purposes only. Some aircraft may
not have these instruments or may be equipped with others.
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Magnetic Compass

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 Compass error

1. Deviation

• Deviation is an error of compass is caused by the magnetic environment on

cockpit

• This error can be adjust by mechanic when doing swing compass on compass
rose

2. Compass variation,

compass variation is an error is caused by location of the compass. This error can be
compensated by pilot

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Magnetic Variation

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The parts of a typical instrument compass
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 Compass Rose

• When swinging a magnetic compass, the compensators are adjusted to correct

for magnetic influence deviation

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 The instrument mechanism is protected by a one or two piece
case. Various materials such as aluminum alloy, magnesium alloy, iron,
steel, or plastic are used in manufacture of instrument cases. Cases for
electrically operated instruments are made of iron or steel; these material
provide a path for stray magnetic force field

Some instrument mechanism are housed in airtight cases, while

other cases have a vent hole. The vent allows air pressure inside the
instrument cases to vary with the aircraft’s change in altitude

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 Range Marking

 Instrument range markings indicate, at a glance, whether a particular

system or component is operating in a safe and desirable range of
operation or in an unsafe range.

 Instruments should be marked and graduated in accordance with:

1. The Aircraft Specification or Type Certificate Data Sheet

2. The Specific Aircraft Maintenance or Flight Manual.

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 Range Marking Color

The colors generally used as range marking are,

1. Red radial line, used to indicate maximum and minimum ranges
2. Green arc marking indicates normal operating range during continuous
operation
3. Yellow is used to indicate caution
4. White index marker is place near the bottom of the cover glass onto the
instrument case. The marker show if the glass slippage has occurred that
would cause the marking to be in error
5. Blue arc marking indicates that operation is permitted under certain
conditions

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 Instrument Panels

With a few exceptions, instruments are mounted on a panel in the cockpit so

that the dial are plainly visible to the pilot or copilot.

The panels are non-magnetic and are paint with a non-glare paint to
eliminate glare or reflection.

The AC main instrument are grouped together in main instrument panels to

distinguish it from additional instruments on the cockpit overhead or along side of
the flight compartment.

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On some aircrafts the many of the pilot’s main instruments are duplicated on the
right side.

Instrument panels are usually:

• shock-mounted to absorb low frequency, high amplitude shocks.

• The type and number of shock mounts are determined by the weight of the
unit.

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 Instrument panel of the Douglas DC-8 commercial
airliner. Basic flight and navigation instruments are
identically both for pilot and copilot

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 Repair of Aircraft Instruments

To repair AC instruments require highly specialized, special

tools and equipment and, a properly certificated
instrument repair facility.
The mechanics are responsible for installation, connection,
removal, servicing and functional checking of the
instruments.

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 Aircraft Pressure Gages

Pressure gages are used to indicate the pressure at which engine oil is force
through the bearings, oil passages, and moving part of the engine and the
pressure at which fuel is delivered to the carburetor or fuel control.

They are also used to measure the pressure of air in deicer systems and
gyroscope drives, of fuel/air mixture in the intake manifold and of liquid or
gasses in several other system.

Most of these systems use a Bourdon tube as the main element. The
Bourdon tube is an aircraft instrument made of metal tubing, oval or
somewhat flattened in cross section. The greater pressure of the fluid, the
more the bourdon tube tends to become straight, as next figure

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Bourdon Tube

The Bourdon tube mechanism can be used to measure pressure or temperature by

recalibrating the pointer’s connecting linkage and scaling instrument face to read in
degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit. Typically the Bourdon tube measure relative high pressure
like those in engine lubricating and hydraulic pressure

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Bourdon Tube Pressure Gage
Examples of Pressure Gages

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Aneroid Capsule

A diaphragm used for measuring pressure. An evacuated sealed

diaphragm is called an aneroid.

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Bellow

Bellow

Pressure

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A bellows unit in a differential pressure
gauge compares two different pressure
values. End movement of the bellows away
from the side with the highest pressure input
occurs when the pressures in the bellows
are not equal. The indicator linkage is
calibrated to display the difference.

Example, one side is connected to the air

pressure at the carburettor inlet, and the
other to sense the fuel pressure at the
carburettor fuel inlet

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 BASIC T INSTRUMENTS

• The basic T arrangement of analog flight instruments. At the bottom of the T is a

heading indicator that functions as a compass but is driven by a gyroscope and
not subject to the oscillations common to magnetic direction indicators.

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 BASIC SIX INSTRUMENTS

Basic six instruments

The red instruments are pitot static system
The blue instruments are gyroscopic system
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 PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

Pitot line, PT = PD + PS

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  PITOT STATIC TUBE
Pitot tube connection
Heating element Static hole

Heater element cable

Pitot drain hole External drain hole Static tube connection

The pitot-static tube head is mounted on the output of the aircraft at a point where
the air is least likely to be turbulent. It is pointed in a forward direction parallel to the
aircraft’s line of flight.

The leading edge of wing, nose section or vertical stabilizer are usual mounting
positions, since at those points there is usually a minimum disturbance of air due to
motion of the aircraft.
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Static pressure is the absolute pressure of
still air surrounding a body; the atmospheric
pressure at the flight level of the aircraft.

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 Maintenance of Pitot Static System
There are certain inspection, procedures and precaution to be observed that
apply to all systems.

 Pitot static and their supporting mats should be inspected for security of
mounting and evident of damage

 Check should also be made to ensure that electrical connection are secured.

 Pitot pressure entry hole, drain hole, and static hole or ports should be
inspected to ensure that they are unobstructed.

 The size of pitot hole, drain hole and static hole are aerodynamically critical,
they must never be clear of obstruction with tools likely to cause enlargement or
burring.

 Heating element should be checked for functioning by ensuring that the pitot
tube begin to warm up when the heater switch is on. 64
 Leak Testing Pitot Static

Aircraft pitot static system must be tested for leaks after installation of
any component parts, when system malfunction is suspected and at the
periods specified in the CASR

In all case, pressure and suction must be applied and release slowly to
avoid damage of the instruments.

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 Airspeed Indicator

Diaphragm

pD= ½ρV2

(pT = pD + pS)

pS

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Airspeed Indicator

As the differential pressure

change, the diaphragm
expand or contracts, causing
the pointer to indicate changes
in airspeed

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68
 Type of airspeed

Indicated Airspeed (IAS)

IAS is shown on the dial of the instrument, uncorrected for instrument or system errors.
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)
CAS is the speed at which the aircraft is moving through the air, which is found by
correcting IAS for instrument and position errors. The Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM) has a
chart or graph to correct IAS for these errors and provide the correct CAS for the various
flap and landing gear configurations.
Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)
EAS is CAS corrected for compression of the air inside the pitot tube. EAS is the same as
CAS in standard atmosphere at sea level. As the airspeed and pressure altitude increase,
the CAS becomes higher than it should be, and a correction for compression must be
subtracted from the CAS.
True Airspeed (TAS)
TAS is CAS corrected for nonstandard pressure and temperature. TAS and CAS are the
same in standard atmosphere at sea level. Under nonstandard conditions, TAS is found
by applying a correction for pressure altitude and temperature to the CAS.

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Examples of Airspeed Indicator

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 Airspeed Indicator

• White arc — commonly referred to as the flap

operating range since its lower limit represents the
full flap stall speed and its upper limit provides the
maximum flap speed. Approaches and landings are
usually flown at speeds within the white arc.

• Lower limit of white arc (VS0) — the stalling speed

or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing
configuration. In small aircraft, this is the power-off
stall speed at the maximum landing weight in the
landing configuration (gear and flaps down).

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• Upper limit of the white arc (VFE) — the maximum speed with the flaps extended.

• Green arc — the normal operating range of the aircraft. Most flying occurs within this
range.

• Lower limit of green arc (VS1)—the stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed
obtained in a specified configuration. For most aircraft, this is the power-off stall speed at
the maximum takeoff weight in the clean configuration (gear up, if retractable, and flaps
up).

• Upper limit of green arc (VNO)—the maximum structural cruising speed. Do not exceed
this speed except in smooth air.

• Yellow arc—caution range. Fly within this range only in smooth air, and then, only with
caution.

• Red line (VNE)—never exceed speed. Operating above this speed is prohibited since it may
result in damage or structural failure

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 ADCs receive input from
the pitot-static sensing
devices and process them
for use by numerous
aircraft systems.

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 ALTIMETER INDICATOR

pS

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Altimeter

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 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

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 Rate of Climb Indicator

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Vertical Speed Indicator

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81
 A330-300 Acrobatic’s Style
Paris Airshow, June 21st, 2004

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Blocked pitot system with clear
static system

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Blockage static port

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  Gyroscope Instruments
• Three of the most common flight instruments are controlled by
gyroscopes:
 the attitude indicator,
 heading indicator
 needle of turn and bank indicator (also referred to turn and slip
indicator)
• A Gyroscope is a wheel or disk mounted to spin rapidly about an axis,
and is also free rotate about one or both of two axes perpendicular to
each other and to the axis of spin.
• A spinning gyroscope offers resistance to any force which tends to
change the direction of the axis of spin.

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 The main characteristics of gyroscope are
 Rigidity
 Precession

Gyroscopic parts

Inner ring outer ring

rotor
Gyroscope rigidity depends upon several design
factors:

1. Weight

2. Angular velocity

3. Radius at which the weight is concentrated

4. Bearing friction

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Gyro at Rest

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Gyroscope Rigidity

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Gyroscope Precession

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References Established by Gyroscope

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Attitude Director Indicator

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 Turn Indicators

Aircraft use two types of turn indicators

 turn-and-slip indicator

 turn coordinator

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Angle of Attack Sensors

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Angle of Attack Indicator

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AOA Warning System

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Primary Flight Display

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 Engine gage unit
Some instruments use three separate instruments in housed in a
single case, as figure 5. There are oil and fuel pressure and oil
temperature.
Two type of oil temperature gage for use in engine unit:
1. Electrical resistance type, supplied by dc aircraft power system
2. Capillary oil thermometer consisting of a bulb connected by a
capillary tube to a Bourdon tube. A pointer connected to the
Bourdon tube trough a multiplying mechanism, indicate on the
dial the temperature of oil.

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102
Reciprocating Engine Instruments

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 Manifold Pressure Gage

Manifold vacuum, or engine vacuum in an internal combustion engine is the

difference in air pressure between the engine's intake manifold and Earth's
atmosphere. Manifold vacuum is an effect of a piston's movement on the
induction stroke and the choked flow through a throttle in the intake manifold of
an engine
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Cylinder Head Temperature (CGT)

CHT is
an instrument to measure the tempe
rature of the cylinder head.

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 Fuel Quantity Sensing Probe

• Resistor Type • Capacitor Type

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Schematic Diagram of a Capacitor-Type Fuel Quantity
Indicating System

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 Tachometer :
Tachometer indicator is an instrument for indicating the speed of crankshaft of a
reciprocating engine or the speed of the main rotor assembly of a gas turbine engine.

• Reciprocating Engine Type • Turbine Engine Type

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 Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)

The engine pressure ratio (EPR) is the total pressure ratio across a jet engine,
measured as the ratio of the total pressure at the exit of the propelling nozzle
divided by the total pressure at the entry to the compressor. Jet engines use either
EPR or compressor/fan RPM as an indicator of thrust
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• The turbine gas temperature is the highest temperature in jet
engines and the limiting factor. The Exhaust gas temperature is a
parameter to measure engine health

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Schematic of Tachometer System

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  Temperature Indicator
Various temperature indication must be known in order for an aircraft to be
operate properly.
Temperature indicator used to show the engine oil temperature, engine cylinder
head temperature, exhaust gas temperature of turbine engine etc.
The principal parts of the electrical resistance thermometer are the indicating
element, temperature sensitive element (bulb), and the connecting wires and
plug connectors
The temperature sensitive element consist of a thermocouple leads are
commonly made from
 Iron/Constantan,
 Copper/Constantan
 Chromel/Alumel

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113
Temperature Indicator

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115
 DC Selsyn Systems

The dc selsyn system is widely used electrical method of indicating a

remote mechanical condition. Specially, dc selsyn systems can be used
to show the movement and position of retractable L/G, wing flaps, cowl
flaps, or similar moveable parts of the aircraft.

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117
Autosyn Synchro System

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119
 Questions
• The operating mechanism of most hydraulic pressure gauges is …….....…...

• (1) Aircraft instruments are color-coded to direct attention to operational ranges

and limitations.
(2) Aircraft instruments range markings are not specified by Title 14 of the Code
of Federal Regulations but are standardized by aircraft manufacturers.
Regarding the above statements,
A. Only number 1 is true
B. Only number 2 is true
C. Number 1 and 2 are true

• When swinging a magnetic compass, the compensators are adjusted to correct

for
A. Magnetic influence deviation
B. Compass card oscillation
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C. Magnetic variation
• The maximum deviation (during level flight) permitted in a compensated
magnetic direction indicator installed on an aircraft certificated under Federal
Aviation Regulation Part 23 is ……………… 10 degrees
• Magnetic compass bowls are filled with a liquid to dampen the oscillation of float
……………………………….

• The maximum altitude loss permitted during an unpressurized aircraft

instrument static pressure system integrity check is 100
…………………..
ft/min

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 Navigation Instruments

 Navigational instruments provide information that enable the pilot to

guide the aircraft accurately along definite course.
 Among of these are a clock, compasses (magnetic compass and
gyroscopic directional indicator), radios and other equipments for
presenting navigational information to the pilot.

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Soal soal aircraft instrument system

123
 An aircraft magnetic compass is swung to up-date the compass correction card when

An aircraft compass is swung, or compensated, to correct for deviation error.

There is no time interval requirement for swinging a compass, but it normally is done when any
equipment has been added to the aircraft that could affect the compass deviation.

124
 The operating mechanism of most hydraulic pressure gauges is

Most hydraulic pressure gauges use a Bourdon tube-type mechanism.

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 What is the fixed line mark attached to the compass bowl of a magnetic compass called?

The reference marker on a magnetic compass is called the lubber line.

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 (1) Aircraft instruments are color-coded to direct attention to operational ranges and
limitations.
(2) Aircraft instruments range markings are not specified by Title 14 of the Code of Federal
Regulations but are standardized by aircraft manufacturers.
Regarding the above statements,

Statement (1) is true. Aircraft instruments are color coded to direct attention to the operational ranges
and limitations.

Statement (2) is not true. Aircraft instrument range markings are specified in the appropriate Type
Certificate Data Sheets which are, according to 14 CFR 21.41 a part of the type certificate.

127
 When swinging a magnetic compass, the compensators are adjusted to correct for

When swinging a magnetic compass, the compensators adjust for the magnetic interference caused by
localized magnetic fields in the aircraft structure. These magnetic disturbances within the aircraft are
called deviation, and they deflect the compass needle from alignment with magnetic north.

128
 What will be the result if the instrument static pressure line becomes disconnected inside a
pressurized cabin during cruising flight?

If an instrument static-pressure line becomes disconnected inside a pressurized cabin, the altimeter will
indicate a lower altitude. The increased static pressure inside the airspeed indicator case will cause it to
read low.

129
 The maximum deviation (during level flight) permitted in a compensated magnetic direction
indicator installed on an aircraft certificated under Federal Aviation Regulation Part 23 is

According to 14 CFR 23.1327, the compensated installation of a magnetic direction indicator may not
have a deviation in level flight greater than 10° on any heading.

130
 Magnetic compass bowls are filled with a liquid to

Magnetic compass bowls are filled with liquid to dampen the oscillations of the float.

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 Instrument static system leakage can be detected by observing the rate of change in
indication of the

Instrument static system leakage can be detected by observing the rate of change in an altimeter
indication.
A suction is applied to the static system that causes an equivalent altitude of 1,000 feet to be indicated on
the altimeter. The system is sealed, and it must not leak more than 100 feet of altitude in one minute.

132
 The maximum altitude loss permitted during an unpressurized aircraft instrument static
pressure system integrity check is

When a static pressure system integrity test is made, the pressure is allowed to leak a maximum of 100
feet in one minute.

133
 Which statement regarding an aircraft instrument vacuum system is true?

Dry-type vacuum pumps do not require any lubrication, but their carbon vanes are highly susceptible to
damage from solid particles in the air.
It is extremely important that only filtered air be allowed to flow through these pumps.

134
 When an aircraft altimeter is set at 29.92" Hg on the ground, the altimeter will read

When the barometric scale on an aircraft altimeter is set to 29.92 inches of mercury, the altimeter reads
pressure altitude, the altitude above standard sea level.

135
 Which of the following instrument discrepancies could be corrected by an aviation
mechanic?
1. Red line missing.
2. Case leaking.
3. Glass cracked.
4. Mounting screws loose.
5. Case paint chipped.
6. Leaking at line B nut.
7. Will not adjust.
8. Fogged.

A certificated aviation mechanic can correct any of these discrepancies:

(1) Red line missing from an instrument, provided the red line is marked on the outside of the instrument
glass.
(4) Loose mounting screws.
(5) Chipped paint on the outside of the instrument case.
(6) Leaking B-nut on the line connected to the instrument.
None of the other discrepancies can be corrected by a mechanic.

136
 Which of the following instrument discrepancies would require replacement of the
instrument?
1. Red line missing.
2. Case leaking.
3. Glass cracked.
4. Mounting screws loose.
5. Case paint chipped.
6. Leaking at line B nut.
7. Will not zero out.
8. Fogged.

Any of the following problems will require an instrument to be replaced:

(2) Case leaking.
(3) Glass cracked.
(7) Instrument will not zero out.
(8) Inside of instrument case is fogged.

137
 Which of the following instrument conditions is acceptable and would not require
correction?
1. Red line missing.
2. Case leaking.
3. Glass cracked.
4. Mounting screws loose.
5. Case paint chipped.
6. Leaking at line B nut.
7. Will not zero out.
8. Fogged.

Case paint chipped is the only one of these problems that would not require correction.

138
 A barometric altimeter indicates pressure altitude when the barometric scale is set at

Barometric altimeters indicate pressure altitude when the barometric scale is set to standard sea-level
pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury.

139
 A Bourdon tube instrument may be used to indicate
1. pressure.
2. temperature.
3. position.

A Bourdon tube instrument is a pressure-measuring instrument. It can be used to measure temperature

by connecting it to a temperature bulb containing a volatile liquid such as methyl chloride. The bulb and
the Bourdon tube are connected with a small-diameter copper tube and are sealed as a unit. When the
temperature surrounding the bulb changes, the pressure above the volatile liquid changes. The Bourdon
tube instrument whose dial is calibrated in units of temperature measures this pressure change, which
relates to the temperature change.

140
 A turn coordinator instrument indicates

A turn coordinator uses a canted rate gyro as its sensing element and can therefore sense both roll and
yaw.

141
 Thermocouple leads

Thermocouple leads must have a specific resistance. They are designed for a specific installation and
should not be altered.

142
 A synchro transmitter is connected to a synchro receiver

Synchro transmitters are connected to synchro receivers electrically with wires.

143
 The operation of an angle-of-attack indicating system is based on detection of differential
pressure at a point where the airstream flows in a direction

The angle of attack system installed in some aircraft measures a differential pressure at the point the
airstream flows in a direction not parallel to the true angle of attack of the aircraft.

144
 Turbine engine exhaust gas temperatures are measured by using

High temperatures, such as the exhaust-gas temperature of a turbine engine, are measured using chromel
and alumel thermocouples.

145
 Fuel flow transmitters are designed to transmit data

The fuel-flow transmitters discussed in this examination transmit their data electrically.

146
 Which of the following causes of aircraft magnetic compass inaccuracies may be
compensated for by mechanics?

Which of the following causes of aircraft magnetic compass inaccuracies may be compensated for by
mechanics?

147
 Who is authorized to repair an aircraft instrument?
1. A certified mechanic with an airframe rating.
2. A certificated repairman with an airframe rating.
3. A certificated repair station approved for that class instrument.
4. A certificated airframe repair station.

Only a certificated repair station approved for the specific class of instrument is authorized to repair an
aircraft instrument.

148
 What does a reciprocating engine manifold pressure gauge indicate when the engine is not
operating?

A manifold pressure gauge used with a reciprocating engine is an absolute pressure gauge.
When the engine is not operating, the manifold pressure gauge indicates the existing atmospheric
pressure.

149
 The requirements for testing and inspection of instrument static systems required by Section
91.411 are contained in

The minimum requirements for testing and inspection of instrument static pressure systems required by
14 CFR 91.411 are contained in 14 CFR Part 43, Appendix E.

150
 Which condition would be most likely to cause excessive vacuum in a vacuum system?

Excessive vacuum in a vacuum system could be caused by an improperly adjusted vacuum relief valve.
A vacuum relief valve is a spring-loaded, flat-disk valve that opens at a preset amount of vacuum to allow
air to enter the system. If the spring is set with too much compression, the vacuum will have to be greater
to allow the disk to offseat and allow air to enter the system.

151
 Data transmitted between components in an EFIS are converted into

All of the data transmitted between the components in an EFIS are converted into digital signals and are
transmitted via an avionics standard communication bus using a time-sharing basis.

152
 The function of a CRT in an EFIS is to

The cathode-ray tube (CRT) is the display unit used with an EFIS. It displays to the pilot alphanumeric data
and graphic displays that represent the aircraft instruments.

153
 The function of a symbol generator (SG) in an EFIS is to

The Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) has three subsystems: the pilot's display system (PDS), the
copilot's display system (CDS), and the weather radar (WX).
The PDS and CDS are identical and each contains two cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays, a symbol generator
(SG), a display controller, and a source-select panel.
The SGs receive input signals from aircraft and engine sensors, process this information and send it to the
appropriate display.

154
 The function of a display controller in an EFIS is to

In the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS), the pilot's display system (PDS) and the copilot's display
system (CDS) are identical and each contains two cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays, a symbol generator
(SG), a display controller, and a source select panel.
The display controller allows the pilot to select the appropriate system configuration for the current flight
situation.

155
 A radar altimeter determines altitude by

A radar altimeter measures the height of the aircraft above the ground by transmitting a VHF signal
vertically downward from the aircraft and receiving the reflected signal. A computer inside the instrument
measures the time required for the signal to reach the ground and return, and converts this time into feet
of radar altitude. This altitude is displayed on the radar altimeter indicator.

156
 Resistance-type temperature indicators using Wheatstone bridge or ratiometer circuits may
be used to indicate the temperatures of which of the following?
1. Free air.
2. Exhaust gas temperature.
3. Carburetor air.
4. Coolant (engine).
5. Oil temperature.
6. Cylinder head temperature.

When temperatures below about 300°F are to be measured by an aircraft instrument, resistance-change
instruments such as Wheatstone bridge or ratiometer instruments are normally used rather than
thermocouples. Free air temperature, carburetor air temperature, engine coolant temperature, and oil
temperature are all measured by resistance-change instruments.

157
 When flags such as NAV, HDG, or GS are displayed on an HSI, the indication is

Warning flags show in a Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) when the function identified by the flag is
inoperative.
Warning flags are included in the navigation (NAV), the gyro (HDG), and the glide slope (GS) circuits.

158
 Which procedure should you use if you find a vacuum-operated instrument glass loose?

If the glass is found to be loose in any aircraft instrument, the instrument must be removed from the
aircraft and the glass resealed by an instrument repair shop.
A mechanic is not allowed to make either major or minor repairs to any aircraft instrument.

159
 Which instruments are connected to an aircraft's pitot-static system?
1. Vertical speed indicator.
2. Cabin altimeter.
3. Altimeter.
4. Cabin rate-of-change indicator.
5. Airspeed indicator.

The vertical-speed indicator, the altimeter and the airspeed indicator are connected to the aircraft pitot-
static system.

160
 How many of the following instruments will normally have range markings?
1. Airspeed indicator.
2. Altimeter.
3. Cylinder head temperature gauge.

Of the instruments listed here, only the airspeed indicator and the cylinder-head temperature gauge have
range markings.

161
 How would an airspeed indicator be marked to show the best rate-of-climb speed (one
engine inoperative)?

A blue radial line is used on an airspeed indicator to indicate single-engine, best-rate-of-climb speed for a
multiengine aircraft.

162
 The green arc on an aircraft temperature gauge indicates

The green arc on an aircraft temperature gauge indicates the desirable temperature range of operation.

163
 What must be done to an instrument panel that is supported by shock mounts?

When an aircraft instrument panel is supported in shock mounts, the mounts must have bonding straps
across them to provide a path for electrical current to return from the instruments to the aircraft
structure.

164
 What marking color is used to indicate if a cover glass has slipped?

A white slip mark painted across the glass and the bezel of an aircraft instrument is used to indicate to the
mechanic whether the cover glass has slipped.
Slip marks are used on instruments that have range marks on the glass rather than on the dial.

165
 Aircraft instruments should be marked and graduated in accordance with

The markings to be used on an aircraft instrument are those specified by the aircraft manufacturer and
listed in the maintenance or flight manual for the particular aircraft.

166
 Aircraft instrument panels are generally shock-mounted to absorb

Aircraft instrument shock mounts absorb low-frequency, high-amplitude shocks and vibration.

167
 The method of mounting aircraft instruments in their respective panels depends on the

The design of the instrument case determines the way the instrument is mounted in the instrument
panel.
Some instruments are held in place with screws. Others are clamped in a special mounting ring.

168
 How is a flangeless instrument case mounted in an instrument panel?

Flangeless instrument cases are mounted in an instrument panel by an expanding-type clamp secured to
the back of the instrument panel.
A screw, accessible from the front of the panel, is loosened to release the instrument and tightened to
clamp the instrument tightly in its mount.

169
 Cases for electrically operated instruments are made of

Most electrical instruments are mounted in iron or steel cases to prevent interference from outside
magnetic fields.
Lines of magnetic flux cannot cross iron or steel because the metal traps the lines of flux rather than
allowing them to pass across it.

170
 When installing an instrument in an aircraft, who is responsible for making sure it is properly
marked?

When an instrument is installed in an aircraft instrument panel, it is the responsibility of the technician
making the installation to be sure the instrument is properly marked for the aircraft in which it is being
installed.

171
 Where may a person look for the information necessary to determine the required markings
on an engine instrument?
1. Engine manufacturer's specifications.
2. Aircraft flight manual.
3. Instrument manufacturer's specifications.
4. Aircraft maintenance manual.

Engine instruments should be marked in accordance with the information found in the Aircraft
Specifications or Type Certificate Data Sheets for the aircraft in which the instrument is installed. This
information is also found in the aircraft maintenance manual or the aircraft flight manual.

172
 A certificated mechanic with airframe and powerplant ratings may

Aircraft instruments may be repaired only by a certificated repair station that has approval for the specific
instrument.
A certificated mechanic with airframe and powerplant ratings may not perform any repairs or any
alterations to aircraft instruments.

173
 The red radial lines on the face of an engine oil pressure gauge indicates

A red radial line on an aircraft instrument dial indicates the maximum and/or minimum safe operating
limit.

174
 A certificated mechanic may perform

The only function among the alternatives given here that is allowed a certificated mechanic is that of
performing a 100-hour inspection of instruments.
The other operations must be done by a certificated repair station with the appropriate approvals

175
 An aircraft instrument panel is electrically bonded to the aircraft structure to

An instrument panel is electrically bonded to the aircraft structure with flexible metal braid to carry
return current from the instruments back to the aircraft battery.

176
 How many of the following are controlled by gyroscopes?
1. Attitude indicator.
2. Heading indicator.
3. Turn needle of the turn-and-slip indicator.

An attitude indicator is controlled by an attitude gyro that senses aircraft rotation about the roll and pitch
axes.
A heading indicator is controlled by an attitude gyro that senses aircraft rotation about the yaw axis.
The turn needle of a turn and slip indicator is controlled by a rate gyro that senses aircraft rotation about
the yaw axis.

177
 The lubber line on a directional gyro is used to

The lubber line on a directional gyro is used as a reference to represent the nose of the aircraft. The
number on the dial opposite the lubber line is the heading of the aircraft.

178
 Which instruments are connected to an aircraft's static pressure system only?
1. Vertical speed indicator.
2. Cabin altimeter.
3. Altimeter.
4. Cabin rate-of-change indicator.
5. Airspeed indicator.

Only the vertical speed indicator and the altimeter are connected to the aircraft's static pressure system
only. The cabin altimeter and cabin rate-of-change indicator sense their static pressure from inside the
cabin. The airspeed indicator is connected to the aircraft's static pressure system and to the pitot system.

179
 When an unpressurized aircraft's static pressure system is leak checked to comply with the
requirements of Section 91.411, what aircraft instrument may be used in lieu of a pitot-static
system tester?
1. Vertical speed indicator.
2. Cabin altimeter.
3. Altimeter.
4. Cabin rate-of-change indicator.

The static system on an unpressurized aircraft can be checked for leakage by placing a negative pressure
of approximately one inch of mercury on the static system and sealing it off. This negative pressure will
cause the altimeter to increase its indication by approximately 1,000 feet. Seal the system and watch the
altimeter for one minute. If the system is not leaking, the altimeter will not change its indication by more
than 100 feet.

180
 If a static pressure system check reveals excessive leakage, the leak(s) may be located by

If, when checking the static system for leaks, a leak is indicated, isolate portions of the system and check
each portion systematically. Begin at the connection nearest the instruments and check it. If this is good,
reseal the connection and check the next portion, working your way out to the static ports until the leak is
found.

181
 When performing the static system leakage check required by Section 91.411, the technician
utilizes

The altimeter, airspeed indicator, and vertical speed indicator that are attached to an aircraft static air
system all work on negative pressure. Static system leakage tests are performed using a negative pressure
of approximately one inch of mercury.

182
 Instrument phyllosophy
• Accurate
• Reliability
• Real time
• Easy to read
• Compact
• standard
• ?vibration, change of temp
• calibrated
183