Advanced Manufacturing

Processes
 Classification
Mechanical Electrochemical Electrothermal Chemical
Processes Processes Processes Processes

Electrical
Electrochemical
Abrasive Jet Discharge Chemical Milling
Machining
Machining (AJM) Machining (CHM)
(ECM)
(EDM)

Laser Beam
Ultrasonic Electrochemical Photochemical
Machining
machining (USM) Grinding (ECG) Milling (PCM)
(LBM)

Water Jet Electron Beam

Electro Jet
Machining Machining
Drilling (EJD)
(WJM) (EBM)

Abrasive Water
Jet Machining
(AWJM)
 Electrical Discharge machining (EDM)
• Controlled metal-removal technique where
electric spark used to cut (erode) workpiece
– Takes shape opposite to that of cutting tool
• Electrode (cutting tool) made from electrically
conductive material
• Dielectric fluid surrounds both tool and work
• Servo mechanism gives gap .005 to .001 in.
between work and tool
• Direct current of low voltage and high
amperage
Electrical Discharge machining (EDM)
Electrical Discharge machining (EDM)
EDM Principle
 Types of EDM Circuits

• Several types of electrical discharge power

supply used for EDM
• Two most common types of power supplies:
– Resistance-capacitance power supply
• Widely used on first EDM machines
• Capacitor charge through resistance from direct-
current voltage source
– Pulse-type power supply
Resistance-Capacitance Circuits
• Combination of low frequency, high
voltage, high capacitance, and high
amperage results:
– Rather coarse surface finish
– Large overcut around tool
– Larger metal particles being removed and more
space to flush out particles
• Advantages of resistance-capacitance
power
– Circuit simple and reliable
– Works well at low amperages
 Pulse-Type Power Supply

• Similar to resistance-capacitance type

• Vacuum tubes or solid-state devices used to
achieve extremely fast pulsing switch effect
• More discharges
per second produces
finer surface finish
 The Electrode
• Formed to shape of cavity desired
• Characteristics of good electrode materials:
– Be good conductors of electricity and heat
– Be easily machined to shape at reasonable cost
– Produce efficient metal removal from work
– Resist deformation during erosion process
– Exhibit low electrode (tool) wear rates
 Electrode

• Common materials (not general-purpose)

– Graphite, copper, copper graphite, copper tungsten,
brass, and steel
• Yellow brass used for pulse-type circuits
– Good machinability, electrical conductivity
• Copper used in resistance-capacitance circuits
with higher voltages
• Graphite
– Gaining acceptance, relatively inexpensive
– Tool wear rate less and high metal-removal rate almost
double of other materials
Main Functions of Dielectric Fluid

1. Serves as insulator between tool and

workpiece until required voltage reached
2. Vaporizes (ionizes) to initiate spark
between electrode and workpiece
3. Confines spark path to narrow channel
4. Flushes away metal particles to prevent
shorting
5. Acts as coolant for both electrode and
workpiece
 Types of Dielectrics
• Must be able to ionize and deionize rapidly
and have low viscosity
– Allow them to be pumped through narrow
machining gap
• Most common have been various
petroleum products
– Light lubricating oils, transformer oils, silicon-
base oils and kerosene
• Selection of dielectric important since it
affects metal-removal rate and electrode
wear
 Advantages of EDM

• Any material that is electrically conductive

can be cut, regardless of its hardness
• Work can be machined in hardened state,
thereby overcoming deformation caused by
hardening process
• Broken taps or drills can readily be removed
from workpieces
• Does not create stresses in work material,
since tool never comes into contact with
work
• Process is burr-free
• Thin, fragile sections easily machined without
deforming
• Process is automatic – servo mechanism
advances electrode into work as metal
removed
• One person can operate several EDM
machines at one time
• Intricate shapes, impossible to produce by
conventional means, are cut out of a solid
with relative ease
• Better dies and molds can be produced at
lower cost
• A die punch can be used as electrode to
reproduce its shape in matching die plate,
complete with necessary clearance
 Limitations of EDM

• Metal-removal rates are low

• Material to be machined must be
electrically conductive
• Cavities produced are slightly tapered but
can be controlled for most applications to as
little as .0001 in. in every .250 in.
Schematic diagram of Laser Beam Machine
Material Removal Mechanism In LBM

Physical processes occurring during LBM

• The unreflected light is absorbed, thus heating the surface of the
workpiece.
• On sufficient heat the workpiece starts to melt and evaporates.
• The physics of laser machining is very complex due mainly to
scattering and reflection losses at the machined surface.
Additionally, heat diffusion into the bulk material causes phase
change, melting, and/or vaporization.
• Depending on the power density and time of beam interaction, the
mechanism progresses from one of heat absorption and
conduction to one of melting and then vaporization.
• Machining by laser occurs when the power density of the beam is
greater than what is lost by conduction, convection, and radiation,
and moreover, the radiation must penetrate and be absorbed into
the material.
 LASER Beam Machining – Application

• Laser can be used in wide range of manufacturing applications

– Material removal – drilling, cutting and tre-panning
– Welding
– Cladding
– Alloying

• Drilling micro-sized holes using laser in difficult – to – machine

materials is the most dominant application in industry. In laser
drilling the laser beam is focused over the desired spot size. For thin
sheets pulse laser can be used. For thicker ones continuous laser
may be used.
Parameters Affecting LBM

Figure 6
• The factors related to LBM Drilling process are discussed below:

• Pulse Energy: It is recommended that the required peak power

should be obtained by increasing the pulse energy while keeping
the pulse duration constant. Drilling of holes with longer pulses
causes enlargement of the hole entrance.

• Pulse Duration: The range of pulse durations suitable for hole

drilling is found to be from 0.1 to 2.5 millisecond. High pulse energy
(20J) and short pulse duration are found suitable for deep hole
drilling in aerospace materials.
• Assist Gases: The gas jet is normally directed with the laser beam
into the interaction region to remove the molten material from the
machining region and obtain a clean cut. Assist gases also shield the
lens from the expelled material by setting up a high-pressure
barrier at the nozzle opening. Pure oxygen causes rapid oxidation
and exothermic reactions, causing better process efficiency. The
selection of air, oxygen, or an inert gas depends on the workpiece
material and thickness.

• Material Properties and Environment: These include the surface

characteristics such as reflectivity and absorption coefficient of the
bulk material. Additionally, thermal conductivity and diffusivity,
density, specific heat, and latent heat are also considered.
Laser Beam Selection Guide
 Laser Beam Machining – Advantages
• Tool wear and breakage are not encountered.
• Holes can be located accurately by using an optical laser system for
alignment.
• Very small holes with a large aspect ratio can be produced.
• A wide variety of hard and difficult-to-machine materials can be
tackled.
• Machining is extremely rapid and the setup times are economical.
• Holes can be drilled at difficult entrance angles (10° to the surface).
• Because of its flexibility, the process can be automated easily such as
the on-the-fly operation for thin gauge material, which requires one
shot to produce a hole.
• The operating cost is low.
 Laser Beam Machining – Limitations

• High equipment cost.

• Tapers are normally encountered in the direct drilling
of holes.
• A blind hole of precise depth is difficult to achieve
with a laser.
• The thickness of the material that can be laser drilled
is restricted to 50 mm.
• Adherent materials, which are found normally at the
exit holes, need to be removed.
 ECM
DC 5-25 V

Current 20000 – 40000 A

IEG 0.5 mm
Electrolyte pressure 2 – 35 kg cm-2
Electrolyte flow rate 20-30 m/s
 Electro Chemical Machining
• ECM is an Electrolytic Process in which Material is Removed by Electrochemical Dissolution of an Anodic
Workpiece.
• When a Metallic Body is Submerged in an Electrolyte, the Metallic Atoms Leave the Body and Become
Ions. These Ions react with negative ions in electrolyte to form metal hydroxides and other compounds.
This Process Goes on Continuously and an Equilibrium is Maintained.
• A Potential Difference, Known as Electrode Potential, Exists between a Point on the Surface of the
Metallic Body (Electrode) and an Adjacent Point in the Electrolyte. Electrode Potential Depends on the
Combination of Electrode and Electrolyte
• If Two Different Electrodes are Submerged in an Electrolyte then a Potential Difference Between these
Electrodes Exists  Cell Electromotive Force
• For Fe and Cu Electrodes Dipped in Brine the Electrode Potentials are
Fe Fe2  2e-  - 0.409 Volts
Cu Cu2  2e-   0.304 Volts
Difference Between Electrode Potential s  0.713
• When a Voltage Difference is Applied Across the Electrodes, Following Actions Occur
Anodic Material Dissolves Leaving Two Electrons : Fe  Fe   2e- (At Anode)
Water gets Two Electrons from the Cathode Producing Hydrogen Gas at Cathode and Hydroxyl Ions.
2H 2O  2e  H 2  2 (OH) - (At Cathode)
 ve Metal Ions Move  Cathode and - ve OH Ions  Anode. In the Process  ve Metal Ions Combine
with - ve OH Ions giving Insoluble Precipita te of Metallic Hydroxide s : Fe   2(OH) --  Fe(OH) 2
Advantages and Limitations of ECM
• Longer Tool Life
• Burr and Stress Free Machining
• Can Machine Material of Any Hardness

• Requires Work Material to be Electrically Conducting

• Very High Specific Energy Consumption (i..e. ~ 150
Times that of Conventional Machining)
• Very High Initial Investment
• High Maintenance and Tooling Cost
• Limited Aspect Ratio