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Wind Energy
Wind Energy
Wind Energy
Introduction
• All renewable energy (except tidal and geothermal power),
ultimately comes from the sun
• The earth receives 1.74 x 1017 watts of power (per hour) from the
sun
• On a global basis one primary forcing function causing surface winds from
the poles toward the equator is convective circulation.
• Solar radiation heats the air near the equator, and this low density heated air
is buoyed up.
• In the upper atmosphere near the equator the air thus tend to flow back
toward the poles and away from the equator.
• The net result is a global convective circulation with surface winds from
north to south in the northern hemisphere.
Introduction
• Local winds are caused by two mechanisms.
• The first is differential (unequal) heating of land and water by the sun due to
their unequal absorptivities and thermal time constants.
• During the day, the air above the land heats up more quickly than the air
over water. The warm air over the land expands and rises, and the heavier,
cooler air rushes in to take its place, creating winds. At night, the winds are
reversed because the air cools more rapidly over land than over water.
• The second mechanism of local winds is caused hills and mountain sides.
The air above the slopes heats up during the day and cools down at night,
more rapidly than the air above the low lands. This causes heated air during
the day to rise along the slopes and relatively cool heavy air to flow down at
night.
Introduction
• Winds are influenced by the ground surface at altitudes up to
100 m. Wind is slowed by the surface roughness and obstacles.
• When dealing with wind energy, we are concerned with surface
winds.
• A wind turbine obtains its power input by converting the force of
the wind into a torque (turning force) acting on the rotor blades.
• The amount of energy which the wind transfers to the rotor
depends on the density of the air, the rotor area, and the wind
speed.
• The kinetic energy of a moving body is proportional to its mass
(or weight). The kinetic energy in the wind thus depends on the
density of the air, i.e. its mass per unit of volume.
In other words, the "heavier" the air, the more energy is received
by the turbine.
at 15° Celsius air weighs about 1.225 kg per cubic meter, but the
density decreases slightly with increasing humidity.
Introduction
• Wind is a renewable Green Energy source
Load
carbon sulfur
dioxide dioxide
particulates
Wind Energy & History
• Wind energy has been used
for thousands of years, for
sailing, pumping water,
grinding grain, etc.
HAWT
VAWT
• 3 blades
• Fiberglass or carbon fiber
• Tail vane that furls
• Heavier (weight of turbine relative to
wind swept area), rugged turbine
• Permanent-magnet, induction
alternator
• Micro-, mini-, household-size turbines
Vertical Axis
Turbines
Disadvantages
Advantages • Rotors generally near
• Omnidirectional ground where wind poorer
– Accepts wind from any • Centrifugal force stresses
angle blades
• Components can be • Poor self-starting capabilities
mounted at ground level • Requires support at top of
turbine rotor
– Ease of service
• Requires entire rotor to be
– Lighter weight towers removed to replace bearings
• Can theoretically use • Overall poor performance
less materials to and reliability
capture the same • Have never been
amount of wind commercially successful
Horizontal Axis
Wind Turbines
• Rotors are usually
Up-wind of tower
• Some machines
have down-wind
rotors, but only
commercially
available ones are
small turbines
Common HAWT Construction
Rotor
Energy Small:
• Requires 6 m/s (13 mph) Average 10 kW
Turbine
Sites
Since the rotor area increases with the square of the rotor
diameter, a turbine which is twice as large will receive 22 = 2 x 2 =
four times as much energy.
Most common design is the three-bladed turbine. The most important reason is the
stability of the turbine. A rotor with an odd number of rotor blades (and at least three
blades) can be considered to be similar to a disc when calculating the dynamic
properties of the machine.
A rotor with an even number of blades will give stability problems for a machine
with a stiff structure. The reason is that at the very moment when the uppermost blade
bends backwards, because it gets the maximum power from the wind, the lowermost
blade passes into the wind shade in front of the tower.
• Wind power
generators convert wind
energy (mechanical
energy) to electrical
energy.
• The generator is
attached at one end to
the wind turbine, which
provides the
mechanical energy.
• At the other end, the
generator is connected
to the electrical grid.
• The generator needs
to have a cooling
system to make sure
SMALL GENERATORS:
Require less force to turn than a larger ones, but give much
lower power output.
Less efficient
i.e.. If you fit a large wind turbine rotor with a small generator
it will be producing electricity during many hours of the year,
but it will capture only a small part of the energy content of
the wind at high wind speeds.
LARGE GENERATORS:
Very efficient at high wind speeds, but unable to turn at low
wind speeds.
i.e.. If the generator has larger coils, and/or a stronger
internal magnet, it will require more force (mechanical) to
start in motion.
o A windmill built so that it too severely interrupts the airflow
through its cross section will reduce the effective wind
velocity at its location and divert much of the airflow around
itself, thus not extracting the maximum power from the wind.
time time
mass
density area velocity
time
AV 3
Power 1 2 (density ) area (velocity ) 3
2
Wind Power - Example
• Example:
V = 10 m/s
A = (2 m)2 = 4 m2
= 1.2 kg/m3
http://enneagon.org/footprint/jpg/dvc01w.jpg
http://z.about.com/d/gonewengland/1/0/5/C/leaf5.gif
AV 3
Power 1
2 ( density ) area ( velocity )
3
2
Wind Power – Example, cont.
P
1.2 kg m 3 4m 2 10 m s
3
2
kg m 2 kg m m m
2400 2400 2400 N
s3 s2 s s
N m Theoretical Maximum
P 2400 2400 W
s
Betz Limit: 59.3% of the theoretical is the maximum amount
extractable by a wind energy conversion device (WEC)
10
8
Low wind speed sites
6
Bulk Power Competitive
High wind Price Band
speed sites
4
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Wind Economics –
Determining Factors
• Wind Resource
• Financing and Ownership
Structure
• Taxes and Policy Incentives
• Plant Size: equipment,
installation and O&M
economies of scale
• Turbine size, model, and
tower height
• Green field or site expansion
• What is included: land,
transmission, ancillary
Small Wind Economics
Simple Payback
Bergey Excel, 100 ft Tower
50 Net Metering Only, 12.5 mph
Net Metering Only, 16 mph
Simple Payback, Years
20
10
0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Electric Rate, ¢/kWh
Economic Development
Impacts
• Land Lease Payments: 2-3% of gross
revenue $2500-4000/MW/year
• Local property tax revenue: 100 MW
brings in on the order of $500,000 - 1
million/yr
• 1-2 jobs/MW during construction
• 2-5 permanent O&M jobs per 50-100
MW
• Local construction and service
industry: concrete, towers usually
done locally
• Investment as equity owners:
Wind Energy Finance
http://analysis.nrel.gov/windfinance/login.asp
Inputs Features
General Assumptions (e.g. Extensive help file explains each entry
Project size, Inflation rate) Easily handles a variety of tax parameters
Capital Costs Exportable summaries and cash flows
Operating Costs
Financing Assumptions
Tax Assumptions
Constraining Assumptions (e.g.
Minimum IRR, Minimum Debt
Service Coverage Ratio)
Outputs
Internal Rate of Return
Debt Service Coverage Ratio
Net Present Value
Cash Flows
Motivations
• Energy crisis
– Shortage of conventional fossil fuel based
energy
– Escalating/rising cost of fossil fuels
• Environmental/Pollution/GHG Issues
– Greenhouse gas emission /Carbon Print
– Acid Rain/Smog/VOC-Micro-Particulates
– Water/Air/Soil Pollution &Health Hazards
Motivations
• Large wind farm utilization is also
emerging (50MW-250 MW) Sized Using
Super Wind driven Turbines 1.6, 3.6, 5
MW Sizes
• Many new interface
Regulations/Standards/PQ Requirements
regarding full integration of large
distributed/dispersed Wind Farms into
Utility Grid.
Motivations
• Challenges for Utility Grid–Wind Integration.
– Stochastically-Highly Variable wind power injected into
the Utility Grid.
– Increased Wind MW-Power penetration Level.
– Low SCR-Weak Distribution/Sub
Transmission/Transmission Networks
- Mostly of a Radial Configuration
- Large R/X ratio distribution Feeder with high Power
Losses (4-10 %), Voltage Regulation Problems/Power
Quality/Interference Issues.
– Required Reactive Power Compensation & Increased
Burden brought by the induction generator
Drivers for Wind Power