Mekelle Institute of Technology

PC Hardware Troubleshooting (CSE501)

Department of Computer Science and
Engineering
Lecture – 4
System Troubleshooting II
Memory Organization

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 Memory Hierarchy
The memory unit is an essential component in any
digital computer since it is needed for storing
programs and data
Not all accumulated information is needed by the
CPU at the same time
Therefore, it is more economical to use low-cost
storage devices to serve as a backup for storing the
information that is not currently used by CPU

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 Memory Hierarchy

Q. How do architects address this gap?

A. Put smaller, faster “cache” memories between CPU and

DRAM. Create a “memory hierarchy”.

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 Memory Hierarchy
The memory unit that directly communicate with
CPU is called the main memory
Devices that provide backup storage are called
auxiliary memory

The memory hierarchy system consists of all storage

devices employed in a computer system from the
slow by high-capacity auxiliary memory to a
relatively faster main memory, to an even smaller and
faster cache memory

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 Memory Hierarchy
The main memory occupies a central position by being able to
communicate directly with the CPU and with auxiliary memory devices
through an I/O processor
A special very-high-speed memory called cache is used to increase the
speed of processing by making current programs and data available to the
CPU at a rapid rate

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 Memory Hierarchy
CPU logic is usually faster than main memory access time,
with the result that processing speed is limited primarily by
the speed of main memory
The cache is used for storing segments of programs currently
being executed in the CPU and temporary data frequently
needed in the present calculations
The typical access time ratio between cache and main
memory is about 1 to 7~10
Auxiliary memory access time is usually 1000 times that of
main memory

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 Main Memory
Most of the main memory in a general purpose
computer is made up of RAM integrated circuits
chips, but a portion of the memory may be
constructed with ROM chips

RAM– Random Access memory

In tegated RAM are available in two possible operating
modes, Static and Dynamic
ROM– Read Only memory

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 Random-Access Memory (RAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
Each cell stores bit with a six-transistor circuit.
Retains value indefinitely, as long as it is kept powered.
Relatively insensitive to disturbances such as electrical noise.
Faster (8-16 times faster) and more expensive (8-16 times more expensice as
well) than DRAM.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Each cell stores bit with a capacitor and transistor.
Value must be refreshed every 10-100 ms.
Sensitive to disturbances.
Slower and cheaper than SRAM.

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 SRAM vs DRAM Summary

Tran. Access
per bit time Persist? Sensitive? Cost Applications

SRAM 6 1X Yes No 100x cache memories

DRAM 1 10X No Yes 1X Main memories,

frame buffers

Virtually all desktop or server computers since

1975 used DRAMs for main memory and
SRAMs for cache

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 ROM
ROM is used for storing programs that are
PERMENTLY resident in the computer and for
tables of constants that do not change in value once
the production of the computer is completed
The ROM portion of main memory is needed for
storing an initial program called bootstrap loader,
witch is to start the computer software operating
when power is turned off

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 Main Memory
A RAM chip is better suited for communication with
the CPU if it has one or more control inputs that
select the chip when needed

The Block diagram of a RAM chip is shown next

slide, the capacity of the memory is 128 words of 8
bits (one byte) per word

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RAM

13
ROM

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 Memory Address Map
Memory Address Map is a pictorial representation of assigned
address space for each chip in the system

To demonstrate an example, assume that a computer system

needs 512 bytes of RAM and 512 bytes of ROM

The RAM have 128 byte and need seven address lines, where
the ROM have 512 bytes and need 9 address lines

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Memory Address Map

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 Memory Address Map
The hexadecimal address assigns a range of
hexadecimal equivalent address for each chip

Line 8 and 9 represent four distinct binary

combination to specify which RAM we chose

When line 10 is 0, CPU selects a RAM. And when it’s

1, it selects the ROM

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18
 Outline
Memory Hierarchy
Cache
Cache performance

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 Cache memory
If the active portions of the program and data are
placed in a fast small memory, the average memory
access time can be reduced,
Thus reducing the total execution time of the
program
Such a fast small memory is referred to as cache
memory
The cache is the fastest component in the memory
hierarchy and approaches the speed of CPU
component

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 Cache memory
When CPU needs to access memory, the cache is examined
If the word is found in the cache, it is read from the fast
memory
If the word addressed by the CPU is not found in the cache,
the main memory is accessed to read the word

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 Cache memory
When the CPU refers to memory and finds the word
in cache, it is said to produce a hit
Otherwise, it is a miss

The performance of cache memory is frequently

measured in terms of a quantity called hit ratio
Hit ratio = hit / (hit+miss)

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 Cache memory
The basic characteristic of cache memory is its fast access
time,
Therefore, very little or no time must be wasted when
searching the words in the cache
The transformation of data from main memory to cache
memory is referred to as a mapping process, there are three
types of mapping:
Associative mapping
Direct mapping
Set-associative mapping

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 Cache memory
To help understand the mapping procedure, we have the
following example:

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 Associative mapping
The fastest and most flexible cache organization uses an
associative memory
The associative memory stores both the address and data of
the memory word
This permits any location in cache to store ant word from
main memory

The address value of 15 bits is shown as a five-digit octal

number and its corresponding 12-bit word is shown as a four-
digit octal number

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Associative mapping

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 Associative mapping
A CPU address of 15 bits is places in the argument
register and the associative memory us searched for a
matching address
If the address is found, the corresponding 12-bits
data is read and sent to the CPU
If not, the main memory is accessed for the word
If the cache is full, an address-data pair must be
displaced to make room for a pair that is needed and
not presently in the cache

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 Direct Mapping
Associative memory is expensive compared to RAM
In general case, there are 2^k words in cache memory and
2^n words in main memory (in our case, k=9, n=15)
The n bit memory address is divided into two fields: k-bits
for the index and n-k bits for the tag field

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Direct Mapping

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Direct Mapping

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 Set-Associative Mapping
The disadvantage of direct mapping is that two
words with the same index in their address but with
different tag values cannot reside in cache memory at
the same time

Set-Associative Mapping is an improvement over the

direct-mapping in that each word of cache can store
two or more word of memory under the same index
address

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Set-Associative Mapping

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 Set-Associative Mapping
In the slide, each index address refers to two data words
and their associated tags
Each tag requires six bits and each data word has 12 bits, so
the word length is 2*(6+12) = 36 bits

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 Outline
Memory Hierarchy
Cache
Cache performance

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 Cache performance
Although a single cache could try to supply instruction and
data, it can be a bottleneck.

For example: when a load or store instruction is executed, the

pipelined processor will simultaneously request both data
AND instruction

Hence, a single cache would present a structural hazard for

loads and stores, leading to a stall

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 Cache performance
One simple way to conquer this problem is to divide it:

One cache is dedicated to instructions and another to data.

Separate caches are found in most recent processors.

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 Average memory access time

Average memory access time =

% instructions * (Hit_time + instruction miss rate*miss_penality)
+
% data * (Hit_time + data miss rate*miss_penality)

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 Average memory access time
Assume 40% of the instructions are data accessing
instruction.
Let a hit take 1 clock cycle and the miss penalty is 100 clock
cycle
Assume instruction miss rate is 4% and data access miss
rate is 12%, what is the average memory access time?

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 Average memory access time
60% * (1 + 4% * 100) +
40% * (1 + 12% * 100)

= 0.6 * (5) + 0.4 * (13)

= 8.2 (clock cycle)

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Memory Troubleshooting
 RAM
The system board’s memory is a very serviceable
part of the system. RAM failures basically fall into
two major categories and create two different types
of failures. What are they?

Soft-memory errors - Errors caused by infrequent and

random glitches in the operation of applications and the
system. You can clear these events just by restarting the
system.

Hard-memory errors - These errors are caused by

permanent physical failures that generate NMI errors in
the system and require that the memory units be checked
by substitution.
 RAM
Observe the bootup RAM count to see that it is
correct for the amount of physical RAM actually
installed in the system. If not, swap RAM devices
around to see if the count changes.

Also, make sure that replacement RAM is consistent

with the installed RAM . Mixing RAM types and
speeds can cause the system to lock up and produce
hard memory errors.
 Microprocessor

If the system consistently locks up after being on for a

few minutes, this is a good indication that the
microprocessor’s fan is not running or that some other
heat buildup problem is occurring.

Booting a system without a fan attached could potentially

fry your processor.
 Processor Corrosion
The fact that most microprocessors are mounted in
sockets or slots brings up another point. These items
should be pulled and reseated in their sockets or lots
if they appear to be a possible cause of problems.

Sockets and slots are convenient for repair and

upgrade purposes, but they can also attract corrosion
between the pins of the device. Over time, the
corrosion may become so bad that the electrical
connection becomes too poor for the device to
operate properly.
 ROM

As with the microprocessor, a bad or damaged ROM BIOS

will typically stop the system completely. When you
encounter a dead system board, examine the BIOS chip for
physical damage. When these devices overheat, they usually
crack or blow a large piece out of the top of the IC package.

In situations where new devices (processors, RAM, hard

drives, etc) have been added to the system, there is always a
chance that the original BIOS will not be able to support
them. If this happens what should you do?

Visit the Manufacturer’s website and download the latest BIOS

upgrade so that you can Flash it.
 Cooling Systems

One of the key design elements for microprocessor

performance is operating temperature. With Pentium
class processors, PC systems are designed to maintain the
operating temperature for the device in the range of…

30 – 40 degrees Celsius

 Cooling Systems

A temperature sensing thermocouple device is

embedded in the system board under the processor
socket. The thermocouple senses the current
temperature of the microprocessor and produces an
analog voltage signal that proportional to the
temperature.

A special health controller IC monitors this signal

and supplies the processor with a digital
representation of the temperature measurement.
Thermaltake Venus 12 CPU Cooler
 Health Configuration Screen

If no fan speed
measurement is
shown, check to
see if the fan is
actually turning.
If not, you should
turn the system
off as soon as
possible, check
the operation of
the fan, and
replace it before
the processor is
damaged.
1 Long, 8 Short

Display Test Failure

 CMOS Batteries

If a system refuses to maintain time and date information,

the CMOS backup battery, or its recharging circuitry, is
normally faulty.

After the backup battery has been replaced, check the

contacts of the battery holder for corrosion. After
replacing the battery, it is necessary to run the CMOS
setup utility to reconfigure your system.
 Exchanging the System Board

Before swapping out the System Board, what

trouble-shooting should you do to find out if the
System Board needs replacing?

Used the CMOS Setup utility to check the system’s

configuration for accuracy (and possibly used default
CMOS configuration options to start the system)

Checked the BIOS version to verify that it supports the

system’s installed hardware components

Examined the system board’s FRU components for

possible problem causes
 Exchanging the System Board
If you tried all of those things, and it still doesn’t
work, then what should you do?
Replace with a Known Good One.

If possible backup the contents of the system’s hard

drive to some other media before removing the
system board. Also, record the CMOS settings, along
with jumper arrangements before switching the
board.
 1 Beep
DRAM Refresh Failure

The system is having a problem accessing the system

memory to refresh it. Refreshing is done on all
system memory to keep its contents active.

Diagnosis: This code usually means a problem either

with the system memory or with the motherboard
itself.
Troubleshooting Keyboard Problems

Most of the circuitry associated with the

computer’s keyboard is contained in the keyboard
itself. However, some keyboard interface circuitry
is located on the system board.

Therefore, the steps required to isolate keyboard

problems are usually confined to the keyboard, it’s
cable, and the system board.
Keyboard-Related Components
 Keyboard Symptoms
No characters appear onscreen when entered from
the keyboard.
Some keys work, whereas others do not work.
A “Keyboard Is Locked—Unlock It” error displays.
A “Keyboard Error—Keyboard Test Failure” error
displays.
A “KB/Interface Error—Keyboard Test Failure”
error displays.
Beep Code is produced during bootup.
Wrong characters display.
An IBM-compatible 301 error code displays.
 Keyboard Configuration Checks
While keyboard configuration settings generally
cause keyboard failures, you should be aware that
several configuration settings are stored in CMOS
that can affect the operation of the keyboard.

In most system, the CMOS setup information

includes keyboard enabling, NumLock key condition
on startup, typematic rate and typematic delay.
 Basic Keyboard Checks
One quick test to determine basic keyboard
problems is to watch the keyboard’s NumLock and
ScrollLock lights during the bootup process. These
lights should flash when the system attempts to
initialize the keyboard.

If the keyboard produces odd characters on the

display in a Windows OS environment, check the
Windows keyboard settings in the Control Panel.
Also make sure the correct language setting is
correct.
 TEST
TIP
Know the effects on the system of heat
buildup and microprocessor fan
failures.

TEST TIP
Know what type of failures hard- and
soft-memory errors are and how they
affect the system.
 TEST
Be
TIP
aware of what can cause the
system to continually lose track of
time.

TEST TIP
Memorize the IBM-compatible
error codes.
 TEST
TIP
Know the most common conditions
that will produce a keyboard error
message.

TEST TIP
Be aware that standard PS/2 6-pin
mini-DIN keyboards cannot be hot
swapped, and that doing so can
cause damage to the keyboard
and system board.
Devices Troubleshooting