METHODS OF RESEARCH

DR. NORMA MARIA P. RUTAB

Professor
INTRODUCTION

“Research is a high-hat word that

scares a lot of people. It needn’t. It
is rather simple. Essentially, it is
nothing but a state of mind- a
friendly, welcoming attitude
towards change.
Going out to look for change, instead
of waiting for it to come. Research for
practical men, is an effort to do
things better and not to be caught
asleep at a switch.
The research state of mind can
apply to anything. Personal affairs
or any kind of business, big or little.
It is the problem-solving mind as
contrasted with the let-well-alone
mind.
It is the composer mind, instead of
a fiddler mind; it is the ‘tomorrow’
mind, instead of the ‘yesterday’
mind.” –C. F. Kettering
Charles F. Kettering
American inventor, engineer and businessman
Born in Loudonville, Ohio on August 29. 1876
Died at the age of 82
an electrical engineer and an industrial pioneer. He was
the vice president of General Motors Research
Corporation, a position which he held for a continuous
27 years.
Widely revered as one of greatest inventers in America,
He held 186 patents, which includes the electrical
starting motor and leaded gasoline. & freon refrigerant
Definitions of Research
Research is a careful, systematic study
in a field of knowledge that is
undertaken to discover or establish facts
or principles. (Webster’s Dictionary)
Research is the systematic investigation
into the study of materials, sources, etc.
in order to establish facts and reach new
conclusions. (Oxford Encyclopedic
Dictionary)
Research is the systematic, controlled,
empirical and critical investigation of
hypothetical propositions about
presumed relations among natural
phenomena. (Kerlinger, 1970)
 Definitions of Research
Research is a procedure by which we
attempt to find systematically, and with
the support of demonstrable fact, the
answer to a question or the resolution
of a problem. (Leedy, 1989)
Definitions of Research
Research is a searching for theory,
for testing theory or for solving a
problem. (Sevilla, et al., 1992)
Research is a systematic way of
gathering data, a harnessing of
curiosity to provide information and
theories for the explanation of the
nature and properties of the world
(Armstrong & Perry, 1994)
Research is a purposive, systematic, and
scientific process of gathering, classifying,
organizing, presenting, analyzing, and
interpreting data for the solution of a
problem, for prediction, for invention, for
the discovery of truth, or for the expansion
or verification of existing knowledge, all for
the preservation and improvement of the
quality of life. (Aguinaldo, 2002)
Research comprises creative work
undertaken on a systematic basis in order to
increase the stock of knowledge, including
knowledge of man, culture and society and
the use of the stock of knowledge to devise
new applications (OECD, 2002)
Research is a process of steps used to collect
and analyze information to increase
understanding of a topic or issue (Creswell,
2007)
Research includes any gathering of data,
information and facts for the advancement of
knowledge (Shuttleworth, 2008)
Activity No. 1
From the various definitions of research given, identify
the common elements and use these as basis for the
formulation of your own definition of research. Write a
short explanation of your definition
Group 1
Research is purposive, systematic
investigation of demonstrable fact
and natural phenomena, involving
hypothetical and critical thinking
through careful gathering of data,
solving problem by testing theory
to arrive in a resolution of a
problem and conclusion.
Group 2
Research is a careful,
purposive and systematic
study of a particular
problem using scientific
method to come up with a
significant resolution.
 LIFE

HCCOPAI

Conclusions &
Recommendations

Group 3
Group 4
Research is an experimental process consists
of strict steps to verify the testing theory and
solve the problems in scientific way.

Come across a problem

Put up a theory
Verify the theory
Solve the problem
Get the conclusion
Group 5
Research is the study of
materials which needed in-
depth investigation to
critically come up with a
relevant and timely solution.
Group 6
Research is a systematic
investigation that activates
curiosity and prediction to solve a
problem and to come up with a
conclusion.
Group 7
Research starts with curiosity to know
why and how an specific event occurs.
It always serves a purpose to make
things better and prove a certain and
correct hypothesis. We carefully gather
data and apply systemic approach to
avoid unorganized information that
can leads to confusion.
Characteristics of Research
Directed towards the solution of a problem
Based on empirical/observable evidences
Demands accurate observation and
description
Emphasizes the development of
generalizations, theories and principles
helpful in predicting future occurrences
Involves gathering new data from primary
sources or use existing data for a new
purpose
Characteristics of Research
Objective and logical, applying every
possible test to validate procedures
employed, data collected and
conclusions reached
Characterized by patience; it is an
unhurried activity
Requires courage
Requires expertise
Key Concepts in Research
It is systematic.
It is empirical
It is controlled
It is an inquiry
It is about solving problems
It adheres to a method
It is focused on a specific subject/topic
What Research Is Not
A mere gathering of data
Moving facts from one situation to
another
As an esoteric activity, far removed
from practical life
As an emotive word to get product
noticed
Activity 2.
Determine which is a research activity and which is
not:
 Professional and /or technical activities to discover
new ways of doing things or to develop a new product
 Development of training design and course modules
 Routine data collection in the inventory section
 Supervisory activities with the aim of devising
development programs
 Medical history information gathering
 Standardization testing of new products
Functions of Research
It helps us answer questions, solve
problems and make decisions
It enables us to see and understand how
and why a situation or a problem exists
It helps us discover new things and ideas
It allows us to validate/verify existing
theories or generate new ones
It helps us identify and understand the
causes and effects of a
situation/phenomenon
The Role of Research in
Total Development
Research is the basic medium for
change.
It is the primary component of
innovation.
Innovations lead to new skills, better
procedures, better performance/service
delivery
It improves the quality of life
Activity No. 3 ( Homework)
NOTE: Output to be passed next meeting
Why are teachers encouraged, if not
mandated, to conduct research?
In fact, it is one of the parameters for
teacher effectiveness. Do you agree that this
should be one criterion for teacher’s
performance? Explain
Research and the Scientific Method
The scientific method is a method of discovering and
acquiring reliable knowledge. (Schafersman, 1994)
Reliable knowledge is knowledge that can be
tested/verified.
3 components of the Scientific Method:
 The Use of Empirical Evidence
 The Practice of Logical Reasoning
 The Possession of a Skeptical Attitude
Steps in the Scientific Method
Identifying a problem or question
- A problem may be an unexplained discrepancy in
one’s field of knowledge, a gap to be filled/closed, a
program/practice that does not give the expected
results
Clarifying/Defining the Problem
- Give more precise description of the problem
through specific indicators
Steps in the Scientific Method
Determining the information needed
and how to obtain these
- Spell out the details of the information gathering
Organizing and analyzing the
information gathered
- Make sense with all the information gathered
Interpreting the results
- Looking for implications of findings against the
possible explanations of the problem/phenomena
(hypothesis)
2 Crucial features of the
Scientific Method
Freedom of thought
- At every step it is crucial for the researcher to be
open to alternative ways of focusing and clarifying
the problem, collecting and analyzing data and
interpreting the results.
Public procedures
- The procedure should be made public as possible
and can be questioned or replicated by any
interested party.
Principles of Scientific Inquiry
Pose significant questions that can be
investigated empirically.
-Questions should have significant
benefits once answered and based on
previous studies.
Link research to relevant theory
-A theory is a set of propositions that
explain the relationship among observed
phenomena
Use methods that permit direct
investigation of the problem.
There is no single method that always
provide the best answers; but the method
should be matched to the questions.
Provide a coherent and explicit chain of
reasoning.
The chain includes links between the
research question, pertinent literature,
methods, findings and conclusions
Replicate and generalize across
studies.
Findings must be checked and validated
and determine if results generalize to a
broader population or to other contexts.
Disclose research to encourage
professional scrutiny and critique.
Results of research should be widely
disseminated and subjected to peer reviews
to ensure overall credibility of findings.
Research as a Scientific Process
Research is a process of constant exploration and discovery.
Attributes of High Quality Research:
 Based on the work of others
 Generalizable in other setting
Based on some logical rationale or tied to a theory
Doable, it poses a question that can be answered.
Cyclical in nature; it starts and ends with a problem
Incremental; results contribute to the body of
knowledge
An apolitical activity undertaken for the improvement
of society
The Research Process
Step1. Problem Identification
Step 2. Formulation of Hypothesis
Step 3. Data Collection
Step 4. Data Analysis
Step 5. Drawing Conclusions
Theory and Research
Generally a research is an avenue for theory
testing and theory generation
Theory Testing
A theory guides the research by suggesting
testable hypotheses.
A theory is strengthened or weakened according
to the outcomes of the empirical tests of
hypotheses derived from it.
The best theory is one that passes the most
rigorous tests of seeking to falsify the theory’s
propositions or to confirm them.
Theory Generation
These are ways by which theory can be
generated:
Inductive Theory Construction- two or
more hypotheses are used as springboard to
move from specific to general.
Hypotheses Combination- If two or
more hypotheses are tested several times
and yielded the same results, they can
move up to the level of a theory
Theory Reworking- A new theory may
be a revision of an existing theory through
a series of investigations
Theory Borrowing- Any theory
developed, tested and applied in one
discipline may be adopted in other
disciplines
Theory Extension- The results of a
reworked theory may be refined by other
scholars in other areas
Theory Integration- The use of a
combination of theories in order to
produce new ideas may give rise to a newly
developed theory
Building with Metaphors- Metaphors
and metaphoric comparisons can be used
to develop theories.
.
Miniaturizing- A partial theory or
sub-theory suggests a path that might
be developed to produce a larger, more
complete or conclusive system
Cross-disciplinary – Involves the use
of library research through various
disciplines
Ethics in Research
In planning research, one must
identify and consider the ethical issues
and to plan how these issues should be
dealt with.
Ethical Issues:
-Worthiness of the research project
-Competence boundaries
-Informed consent
-Benefits, costs and reciprocity
-harm and risks
-Honesty and trust
-Privacy, confidentiality and anonymity
-Intervention and advocacy
- Research integrity and quality
- Ownership of data and conclusion
- Use and misuse of results
Activity No. 4 (Research work)
NOTE: Not to be passed but should be a handy
reference during the research process
Research on the APA format for citing references
A. Books , single author
B. Books, more than one author
C. Journals/ magazines
D. E-resources

Give one example for each, taking note of what are

to be included, what punctuations are to be used,
etc.
Types of Research
1. According to purpose
Pure/ Basic Research vs Applied Research
Pure/ basic research is a type of research that attempts
to describe an existing situation and/ or explain certain
patterns of behavior with the goal of accumulating
knowledge about a certain phenomenon towards the
formulation or the refinement of a theory.
Example:
“Determinants of Attrition Among High School
Students”
Types of Research
- Applied Research is a type of research that aims to see
an immediate solution to a problem. It focuses on
variables that can be changed by some form of
intervention in order to achieve the desired goal.
Example:
“Remedial Teaching: Its Effect on the Performance of
Slow Learners”
“ Men’s Involvement in Child Care through Gender
Sensitivity Training”
Types of Research
Exploratory vs Explanatory Research
Exploratory research is designed to describe an existing
problem situation and examine the underlying factors
that contribute to the emergence of the problem, the
nature of which is not yet well known.
Example:
“Domestic Violence: Ideas, Experiences and Needs of Married
Working Men”
“ Working Women’s Coping Strategies to Stress in the Home and
in the Work Place”
Types of Research
Explanatory Research is a type of research that is
designed to understand or explain prevailing situation
or explain the relationship between factors which may
have already been defined in exploratory studies. It seeks
answers to “ why” and “how” certain situations exist.
Example:
“Extent of Exposure to Advertising Materials and Expenditure
Patterns of Young Professionals”
Types of Research
2. According to Approach
Quantitative research is a type of research that seeks to
quantify or reflect in numerical form the observations
on the characteristics of the population being studied. It
emphasizes precise measurement and requires
statistical analysis of data or testing hypothesis based on
a sample of observations.The main emphasis is on
deductive reasoning
Types of Research
Qualitative Research is a type of research that
emphasizes verbal descriptions and explanations of
human behavior and practices in an attempt to uncover
deeper meaning and significance leading to a better
understanding of people’s experiences and way of life.
Gathering of data gives the participants a certain degree
of freedom and spontaneity rather than forcing them to
select responses from a pre-determined set of defined
responses. Some techniques for gathering data are:
participant observation, key informant interview, focus
group discussion
Types of Research
Mixed methods is a type of research that makes use of
both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The data
can be gathered through interview (qualitative) then use
the narratives gathered to develop a questionnaire to
measure quantitatively attitudes and behavior. It can
also be using quantitative and qualitative approaches
simultaneously to validate results.
Activity No. 5
Note: To be passed
What is an action research? How is it different from the
types of research discussed?
Research on what an action research is and what is its
format?
The Research Process
Step 1. Identification of the Research Problem
Every research starts with a problem
The research problem serves as the focus of the
investigation
There are 3 conditions to be present for a problem to
be researchable:
A perceived discrepancy between what is (current) and
what should be (standard)
A question about why the discrepancy exists
At least two (2) plausible answers to the question
Problem Identification and Definition
Every research starts with a problem.
Without a problem, there is no need
for research
Very often, neophytes/students in
research find it difficult to identify a
research problem
The irony is: their problem is not
having a problem
What is a Research Problem
A problem is a perceived difficulty, a feeling of
discomfort with the way things are or a discrepancy
between what is and what should be.
Any question that requires answers, any assumption
that needs to be challenged, or assertions that need to
be investigated can become a research problem
3 Conditions for a potential research
problem
A perceived discrepancy between
what is and what should be
A question about why the
discrepancy exists
At least two possible and plausible
answers to the question
A research problem, once
answered, should have advanced
the state of knowledge in a
particular discipline; hence it
should benefit a group of people or
it should open new avenues in a
particular discipline
Identification of a Researchable Problem
Situation: Despite the free tuition fee, high school
students in public schools in war-torn places in
Mindanao shows that more than 50% of the students
drop out before the middle of the school year
Problem: What factors contribute to the high drop out
rate of students?
Possible Answer: Fear of being caught in crossfire
between the rebels and the military
Note: Since there is only one possible reason, it is not
researchable
Characteristics of a Good Research Problem
Novelty and avoidance of any
unnecessary duplication
Importance to the researcher’s
field of specialization
Interest, intellectual curiosity and
drive
Researcher’s training and
qualification
Availability of data and
appropriateness of method
Costs and returns
Time factor, hazards,
equipment
Problem Definition

Guide in defining a Research Problem

- Identify a broad topic or area in a
particular field and read literature
about the topic
- Dissect the area into sub-areas
through some form of brainstorming
- Select a specific area to focus on
- Raise research questions that would
be answered through the study
- Formulate objectives: main
problem and sub-problems
- Review related literature to assess
these objectives and to ascertain
their feasibility
- Double check that resources are
adequate and available.
Activity No. 6
Note: To be passed for possible research topc
From your experiences as a teacher, what possible
topics can you research on. Give at least 3 problems.
Note: Use the format for problem Conceptualization
RESEARCH OBJECTIVE AND HYPOTHESIS
Before a study is designed, its
objectives must be clearly stated.
Research objectives specify what
the researcher wants to do and find
out.
They give focus to the study and
specify the variables that are going
to be measured.
Once the research objectives have
been formulated, the researcher
makes educated guesses to
tentatively answer the questions
implied in the objectives. These
guesses are called hypothesis.
What are Research Objectives?
Research objectives are statements of
what the researcher intends to do.
The objectives flow logically from the
problem. They communicate what the
research plans to do. Structurally, the
objectives are seen as small particles
which constitute the problem.
.
Research Problem vis-à-vis
Research Objective
While the problem deals with
broad concepts, the research
objective usually states the
concepts in operational terms
Example:
“Students’ Extent of Exposure to
Mass Media and Its Effect on their
Academic Performance,” “exposure to
mass media” is a broad concept. On
the other hand, in the objective, “To
determine the students’ frequency of
watching TV,” “frequency of watching
TV” is specific and measurable.
 Some Tips in Formulating
Research Objectives
In formulating research objectives, be sure to:
 Use simple language.
 Focus attention on the specific actions that
will be performed,
 State exactly, what will be done and what
variable will be measured, and
 Write objectives in behavioral terms, like,
“to determine…,” “to describe...” “to
compare…,” and the like.
 Examples of research objectives:
 “To determine the extent of high school
students’ participation in school activities.”

Examples of objectives stated in question form:

This study sought answer to the following
questions:
1. To what extent do high school students
participate in school activities?
2. Does extent of participation in school activities
of male students significantly differ from the
extent of participation of female students?
3. Is there a significant relationship between the
students’ extent of participation in school
activities and their school performance?
 Specific Objectives
In studies with a broader coverage in terms
of subjects and variables, statement of
specific objectives may be necessary.

Specific objectives may be viewed as sub-

objectives or small particles of the
general objective.
The specific variables examined in
the study are identified in the
specific objectives.
 The variables are expressed in
measurable terms.
 The specific objectives suggest the
type of analysis to be done
Examples of Statements of General and
Specific Objectives
“ Students’ Involvement in Co-curricular
Activities and their Academic
Performance”
General Objective:
The study will be conducted to determine
the effect of student involvement in co-
curricular activities on their
academicperformance.
Specific Objectives:
Specifically, the study aims to:
1. Determine the extent of involvement of
college students in co-curricular activities
2. Determine the level of academic
performance of the college students
3. Determine the relationship between the
amount extent of involvement of college
students in co-curricular activities and
their level of academic performance.
Hypothesis
Researchers make educated guesses
to tentatively answer the research
questions. Usually they make many
tentative answers to the research
questions. From these select the more
logical and theoretically sound guesses.
These tentative answers to the research
question/s are called the hypotheses.
What is a Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is defined as an educated
guess or a tentative answer to a questions.
It is a statement about an expected
relationship between two or more variables
that can be empirically tested.
It is usually tested in intervention or
evaluation studies and in
correlation/relational studies.
It suggests the type of analysis that must be
done in order to measure the relationship.
Purely descriptive studies or
diagnostic and exploratory
investigations do not normally
require hypothesis statements
because they generally do not test
causal relationships between
variables.
Types of Hypothesis
Null hypothesis vs. Alternative Hypothesis
A null hypothesis is a negative statement which
indicates the absence of a relationship/correlation between
two variables, an absence of a significant difference
between the propertions of two groups of people or objects
possessing a particular characteristics or an absence of
difference between or among the means of two or more
groups with respect to a particular variable, such as, “mean
age of males and mean age of females,” and “mean score in
math of students who attended tutorial classes and mean
score of those who did not attend tutorial classes.”
Examples of Null Hypothesis
1. “There is no significant relationship between mass
media exporure and attitude towards land reform
among lowland farmers.”
2. “There is no significant difference between the mean
age of male faculty members and the mean age of
female faculty members.”
Alternative Hypothesis
An alternative hypothesis, also called the research
hypothesis, is the positive form of the null hypothesis.
It may state the presence of a significant relationship
between the independent and dependent variables, or
the presence of a significant difference between two
means or two proportions.
Examples of Alternative
Hypothesis
 “There is a significant relationship between mass
media exposure and attitude towards land reform
among lowland farmers.”
 “There is a significant difference between the mean
age of male faculty members and the mean age of
female faculty members.”
Directional and Non-directional
Hypothesis
A directional hypothesis states whether the
relationship between two variables is direct or inverse
or positive or negative. A positive or direct relationship
is present when the value of one variable increases
with the increase in the value of another. The
relationship is negative when the value of one variable
increases as the value of another decreases.
 Examples of Directional
Hypothesis
 “The higher the level of exposure of farmers to
mass media the more favorable their attitude land
reform” (positive)
 “The more time employees spend in meetings, the
less productive they are.” (negative)
 “The higher the advertisement expenses of food
establishments, the higher their monthly gross
sales.” (positive)
 Non-directional Hypothesis
A non-directional hypothesis. The non-directional
hypothesis does not specify the direction of
relationship between variables. It merely states the
presence or absence of a relationship between two
variables or that one variable influences another, or
there is a significant differences in the mean values of
the two variables.
 Examples of Non-directional
Hypothesis
 “The women’s educational attainment is significantly
associated with their extent of participation in
decision-making at home.”
 “There is a significant difference between the
proportion of women and the proportion of men who
are engaged in sales.”
How to Write Hypothesis?
In writing hypothesis, one must remember the
following:

 Hypothesis must be written in simple

understandable language.
Hypothesis must focus on the variables.
One must keep in mind the distinction between
independent and dependent variables.
 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF
VARIABLES
One of the most important concepts in research is
the concept of “variable.” There are many kinds of
variables and many research studies involve the
examination of relationship between variables.
Variables may be studied one at a time or in relation to
other variables.
What is Variable?
A variable is a concept that stands for a variation within a class of
objects or persons (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1996).
A variable is a characteristics or property that can take different
values or attributes (Schutt, 1999).
Variables are the basic elements which are measured in a study.
They are observable and measurable.
Examples of Variables:
 Age
 Sex
 Marital status
 income
Types of Variables
 Dependent Variable is the “assumed “effect” of another
variable. It is the change that occurs in the study
population when one or more factors are changed or
when an intervention is introduced. Usually
dependent variable is the problem itself.
 Independent variable is the “assumed cause” of a
problem. It is an assumed reason for any “change” or
variation in a dependent variable. An independent
variable is sometimes treated as “antecedent” variable
(the variable before).