JOEL P. CARREON M.D.

 To define the neuron and name its processes

 To learn the varieties of neurons and identify them

in the different parts of the nervous system

 To review the cell biology of a neuron and

understand the function of a nerve cell and its
processes
 To review the structure of the plasma membrane
as it is related to its physiology
 To learn the transport of materials from the cell
body to the axon terminals
 To understand the structure and function of
synapses and neurotransmitters
 To review the supporting function of the
neuroglial cells for nerve cells and the possible
role that they play in neuronal metabolism,
function, and neuronal death
 Nerve cell and its processes
 Neurons are excitable cells
that are specialized for the
reception of stimuli and the
conduction of the nerve
impulse
 According to number,
length, and mode of
branching of the
neurites(morphological)
 The nerve cell body
consists essentially of a
mass of cytoplasm in
which a nucleus is
bounded externally by a
plasma membrane
 The cell bodies of the
small granular cells of
the cerebellar cortex
measure about 5 um in
diameter
 large anterior horn cells
may measure as much
as 135 um in diameter
 stores the genes
 In mature neurons,
the chromosomes no
longer duplicate
themselves and
function only in gene
expression.
 Nucleolus – rRNA
synthesis
 In the female, one of
the two X
chromosomes is
compact and is known
as the Barr body.
 regarded as a special portion
of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum of the cytoplasm
 double layered and possesses
fine nuclear pores, through
which materials can diffuse
into and out of the nucleus
 considered as functionally
continuous with the
cytoplasm
 rich in granular and agranular
endoplasmic reticulum
 Contains:
(a) Nissl substance
b) the Golgi complex
(c) mitochondria
(d) microfilaments
(e) microtubules
f) lysosomes
(g) centrioles
(h) lipofuscin, melanin, glycogen,
and lipid
 consists of granules that are
distributed throughout the
cytoplasm of the cell body, except the
axon hillock
 composed of rough-surfaced
endoplasmic reticulum
 Basophilic
 Responsible for synthesizing protein
 Fatigue or neuronal damage causes
the Nissl substance to move and
become concentrated at the
periphery of the cytoplasm -
chromatolysis
 when seen with the light
microscope after staining
with a silverosmium
 method, appears as a
network of irregular wavy
threads around the
nucleus. In
 electron micrographs, it
appears as clusters of
flattened cisternae and
small vesicles
 made up of smooth-
surfaced endoplasmic
reticulum
 For transport of protein
products and enzymatic
reactions
 scattered throughout
the cell body, dendrites,
and axons
 spherical or rod shaped
 double membrane
 possess many enzymes
 take part in the
tricarboxylic acid cycle
and the cytochrome
chains of respiration
 form the main component of the
cytoskeleton
 very stable and belong to the
cytokeratin family
 3-5 nm in diameter and formed of actin
 concentrated at the periphery of the cytoplasm
 play a key role in the formation of new cell
processes and the retraction of old ones
 assist the microtubules in axon transport
 are revealed with the
electron microscope and are
similar to those seen in
 other types of cells. They
measure about 25 nm in
diameter and are found
interspersed among the
neurofilaments . They extend
throughout the cell body and
its processes.
 In the axon, all the
microtubules are arranged in
parallel, with one end
pointing to the cell body and
the other end pointing
distally away from the body
 Rapid transport (100  Slow transport (0.1 to
to 400 mm per day) 3.0 mm per day)
 kinesin for  involves the bulk
anterograde (away movement of the
from the cell) cytoplasm
movement  includes the
 dynein for retrograde movement of
movement mitochondria and
other organelles
 occurs only in the
anterograde direction
 membrane-bound vesicles
measuring about 8 nm in
diameter
 intracellular scavengers and
contain hydrolytic enzymes
 formed by the budding off of
the Golgi apparatus.
 primary lysosomes, which have
just been formed
 secondary lysosomes, which
contain partially digested
material (myelin figures)
 residual bodies, in which the
enzymes are inactive and the
bodies have evolved from
digestible materials such as
pigment and lipid.
 small, paired structures
found in immature
dividing nerve cells
 hollow cylinder whose
wall is made up of
bundles of microtubules
 associated with the
formation of the spindle
during cell division and
in the formation of
microtubules
 yellowish-brown
granules within the
cytoplasm
 result of lysosomal
activity
 accumulates with age
 found in the
cytoplasm of cells in
certain parts of the
brain
 related to the
catecholamine-
synthesizing ability of
these neurons, whose
neurotransmitter is
dopamine.
 site for the initiation and conduction of the
nerve impulse
 composed of an inner and an outer layer of
very loosely arranged protein molecules, each
layer being about 2.5 nm thick, separated by a
middle layer of lipid about 3 nm thick
 The plasma membrane and the cell coat
together form a semipermeable membrane
that allows diffusion of certain ions through it
but restricts others
 The permeability of the membrane to K+ ions
is much greater than that to the Na+ ions
 When the nerve cell is excited (stimulated) by
electrical, mechanical, or chemical means, a rapid
change in membrane permeability to Na+ ions
takes place, and Na+ ions diffuse through the
plasma membrane into the cell cytoplasm from the
tissue fluid
 Action potential
 The greater the strength of the initial stimulus, the
larger the initial depolarization and the greater
will be the spread into the surrounding areas of
the plasma membrane.
Nerve impulse – it is when the action potential
spreads over the plasma membrane away from
the site of initiation
- and is conducted along neurites
Refractory period – when another action potential
cannot be elicited immediately after the nerve
impulse.
Summated – multiple excitatory stimuli applied
to the surface of a neuron.
Inhibitory stimuli – caused by influx of Cl ions
- hyperpolarization
 the movement of ions in solution depends not
only on the size of the ion but also on the size
of the shell of water surrounding it
 K+ ions have weaker electric fields than Na+
ions
 Gaiting – involve twisting and distortion of
channels, creating wider or narrower lumen.
- it responds to voltage change,
presence of ligand, stretch or pressure.
1. Dendrites
 short processes of the cell body
 In many neurons, the finer branches bear large
numbers of small projections called dendritic
spines.
 extensions of the cell body to increase the
surface area for the reception of axons from
other neurons
 Essentially conduct the nerve impulse toward
the cell body.
2. Axon
 longest process of the cell body
 diameter of axons varies
considerably with different
neurons
 The plasma membrane
bounding the axon is called the
axolemma
 The cytoplasm of the axon is
termed the axoplasm
 possess no Nissl granules or
Golgi complex
 The initial segment of the axon is
the first 50 to 100 µm after it
leaves the axon hillock of the
nerve cell and is the most
excitable part of the axon
 the site at which action potential
originates.
 Fast anterograde transport of 100 to 400 mm
per day refers to the transport of proteins and
transmitter substances or their precursors
 Slow anterograde transport of 0.1 to 3.0 mm
per day refers to the transport of axoplasm and
includes the microfilaments and microtubules
 the site where two neurons come into close
proximity and functional interneuronal
communication occurs.
 takes place in one direction only
 most common type is that which occurs
between an axon of one neuron and the
dendrite or cell body of the second neuron
 Synapses are of two types: chemical and
electrical. Most synapses are chemical, in which
a chemical substance, the neurotransmitter
 apposed surfaces of the terminal axonal
expansion and the neuron – pre and post
synaptic membrane
 they are separated by a synaptic cleft measuring
about 20 to 30 nm wide
 on the presynaptic side, the dense cytoplasm is
broken up into groups
 on the postsynaptic side, the density often
extends into a subsynaptic web
 presynaptic terminal contains many small
presynaptic vesicles which releases
neurotransmitters at synaptic cleft by exocytosis.
 acetylcholine (ACh), norepinephrine,
epinephrine, dopamine, glycine, serotonin,
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA),
enkephalins, substance P, and glutamic acid
 At post synaptic membranes, transmitter
substance undergo immediate but brief EPSP
or IPSP.
 The rapid excitation is seen with acetylcholine
(nicotinic) and L-glutamate, or the inhibition is
seen with GABA
 The excitatory and the inhibitory effects on the
postsynaptic membrane of the neuron will
depend on the summation of the postsynaptic
responses at the different synapses
 Acetylcholine, for example, is found at the
neuromuscular junction, in autonomic ganglia,
and at parasympathetic nerve endings
 Norepinephrine is found at sympathetic nerve
endings. In the central nervous system, it is
found in high concentration in the
hypothalamus
 Dopamine is found in high concentration in
different parts of the central nervous system,
such as in the basal nuclei (ganglia)
 are in separate presynaptic vesicles
 do not have a direct effect on the postsynaptic
membrane.
 Other receptor proteins bind the
neurotransmitter substance and
 activate a second messenger system, usually
through a molecular transducer, such as a G-
protein, and alter the response of the receptor
to the neurotransmitter
 neurons of the CNS are supported by varieties
of non- excitable cells.
 smaller and outnumber the neurons 5 to 10
times
 There are four types of neuroglial cells:
 (1) astrocytes
 (2) oligodendrocytes
 (3) microglia
 (4) ependyma
 The gap which separates neurons and
neuroglial cells and filled with tissue fluid.
 almost in direct continuity with the
cerebrospinal fluid in the subarachnoid space
externally and with the cerebrospinal fluid in
the ventricles of the brain and the central canal
of the spinal cord internally
 provides a pathway for the exchange of ions
and molecules between the blood and the
neurons and glial cells