Chapter 1

The Highway and Its Development

 Brief History of Roads
 Early roads with hard surfaces were found in the land of Mesopotamia and
were constructed as early as 3,500 B.C.
 Another stone surface roads were also found in the Mediterranean island of
Crete similarly constructed as those in the Western Hemisphere by the
Mayans, Aztecs and the Incas of Central South Africa.
 The early road systems were constructed primarily for the ff. purposes:
1. For the movement of armies in their conquest and for defense against
invasion.
2. For transport of food and trade of goods between neighboring towns and
cities.
 The Romans, who discovered cement, expanded their vast empire through
extensive road networks radiating in many directions from the capital city of
Rome. Many of the roads built by the Romans still exist even after 2000 years.
 Brief History of Roads

 Characteristically, Roman roads were laid on three

courses:
1. A layer of small broken stones.
2. Followed by layer of small stones mixed with mortar and then
compacted firmly.
3. Wearing course of massive stone blocks properly set and
bedded with cement mortar.
 Jerome Tresaguet (1716-1796)

• the famous French Engineer introduced

new methods of construction and
maintenance of stone roads
• He improved the crown, the drainage, and
the grade of the road, including the stone
foundation by reducing the depth of
broken stones to 25 centimeters
• “Father of Modern Road Building”
Thomas Telford (1757-1834)
• A Scottish Engineer born in Westminster
Abbey, president and founder of the
Institute of Civil Engineer
• Introduced some improvements in the
construction methods of Jerome
Tresaguet
• The road foundation course of Telford was
made of stones having 3 inches minimum
thickness 5 inches breadth and 7 inches
height.
John Loudon Mac Adam (1755-1836)

• Macadam road concept

• Another famous Scottish Engineer
road builder and contemporary of
Telford
Eli Blake
• In 1858, he invented the first stone crusher and
at the same period,

Aveling & Porter

• Introduce the steam road roller weighing 30
tons in France
Early Laws That Regulates Highways

The early Saxon Laws imposes three mandatory

duties for people to perform, namely;

1. To repair the roads and bridges.

2. To repair the castles and garrisons.
3. To aid repel invasions.
 Highways in the Philippines
• In the early part of 1990, transportations in this country depended largely on:
- trails - earth roads
- waterways - partially graveled roads
- railroad
• The American government initiated the development of roadways in the
Philippines, connecting towns, cities and provinces.
• The popular Macadam road type was introduced. It gained wide
acceptance because of the abundant supply of stones and gravels.
• After the 2nd World War, the new independent Philippine government
continued the rehabilitation and construction of roads and bridges, through
the reparations and war damages paid by the Japanese government
• Fifty years later, major highways and expressways were
constructed through the financial assistance and loans from
foreign banks.
• Alongside with the industrialization program of the government,
vehicles of various types and sizes started flooding the roadways.
• Recent Land Transportation records revealed that more than
30,000 brand new vehicles were added to their list every year.
• At an average of 5.00 meters road occupancy by these vehicles,
the DPWH must open 400 km new roads every year.
• The year 1960 to early part of 1980 was considered an automobile
age.
Planning Difficulties
Highway planners are confronted with problems
categorized as follows:
1. Financial
2. Political
3. Technical
 Highway Programming
There are three inseparable sets of inputs involved in
highway programming, they are:
1. Economic – Deals with the questions of resources
2. Financial – The question of who pays and who spends, how
much, and where?
3. Political and Administration – This involves decision making.
 Highway Programming Approaches
1. Financial resources are either short or long-ranged implementations by the
agencies functions like construction, operation and maintenance.
2. Recognition of the legislative and administrative desire and constraint.
3. Tentative priorities based on economic analysis, critical situations, present and
future expected level of traffic, and claims based on political subdivisions.
4. Providing continuity of route system and coordination with another
transportation mode.
5. Selection of projects based on availability of labor and materials, including
climatic conditions.
6. Scheduling project implementation in coordination with other agencies
acquiring right of way and making final plan and specifications.
7. Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies like floods and other natural
disasters.
 Direct Effects of Highway Construction
and its Use
A. Quantifiable Market Value
1. Cost of Highways as to:
a. Planning cost
b. Right of Way appropriations
c. Construction costs
d. Maintenance costs
e. Operating costs
2. Cost benefits to highway users:
a. Vehicles operating costs (including
congestion cost) net income or in costs of
vehicles operation per year.
b. Travel savings time (commercial). Net
increase or decrease in travel time multiplied by
the peso value of commercial time.
c. Motorist’s safety (economic cost
accident) Net change in expected number of
accidents times the average cost per accident
per year
Direct Effects of Highway Construction
and its Use
B. Non-Quantifiable Non- C. Quantifiable Non-Market
Market Value Value
1. Cost Benefits to highway user: 1. Cost Benefits to highway users:

a. Motorist’s safety – Accident cost of pain Traveling savings time (non-

suffering and deprivation. commercial) Minutes save per
vehicle trip.
b. Comfort and Conversion – Discomfort,
inconvenience and strain of driving.
c. Aesthetic from driving viewpoint –
Benefit of pleasing views and scenery from
road.
Community Involvement
 In a democratic government, the public has the right to hear and to be
heard.
 Much more to participate in a public hearing where planning and decision
making will be conducted before major decisions are made.
 Public hearing should involve the public from the start of planning to give
them a chance to participate in the discussions and involved them in:
1. Solicit the cooperation and support of public officials, non-government
organizations, influential persons and conservative group of the community.
2. Create Special staff to carry out this function.
3. Community leadership opportunity to participate continuously in the planning
stage.
4. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct group meeting, workshops,
hearing and other related activities.
Highway Economy
According to W. Gillespe, professor of Civil
Engineering at the Union College:
“A minimum of expenses is of course,
highly desirable; but the road that is truly
the cheapest is not the one which has cost
the least money, but the one which makes
the most profitable returns in proportion to
the amount expended upon it.”
Highway Economy
 The intent of expenditures for highways and public
transportations are enumerated as follows:
1. To augment the country’s level of economy.
2. To provide easy access to working place.
3. To facilitate public services; police, fire protection etc.
4. To facilitate medical car, schooling, delivery of related basic services.
5. To give landowner benefits to transportation and increase property
assessment.
6. Benefit to motor vehicle users through lower cost of operations and
maintenance.
7. Benefit in saving time.
8. Less road accident.
9. To give maximum comfort and ease of travel.
Highway Economy
 Arguments of those who Favors Borrowings are:
1. The need is immediate to have instant infrastructures.
2. No impact project will be seen because the “pay as you go”
fund is scattered throughout the entire road system where the
situation is most critical.
3. Borrowings encourage investors because of fast progress.
Highway Economy
 Counter Arguments of those Against Financing
Infrastructures through Borrowing:
1. Borrowing may impair the credit rating of government agencies
obstructing more important improvements.
2. If future income is committed to pay past improvements, no more
funds available to maintain the existing system.
3. With much amount available temptation is there to over build and
recklessly spend extravagantly.
4. Interest of the loan is a big waste of public funds.
Location of the Proposed Highway
 To improve the highways, there should be tentative plan as to the
control and minimum design speed, roadway cross sections, and
maximum slope with the following considerations:
1. Reliable cost estimate
2. Character and hourly distribution of traffic
3. Economic and community benefit factor
4. Availability of funds
Location of the Proposed Highway
 Location surveys in the rural areas are divided into
four stages:
1. Reconnaissance survey of the entire area
between terminal points.
2. Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes.
3. Preliminary survey of the best route.
4. Location survey, staking of right of way, the
highway and the structure for construction.
Location of the Proposed Highway
 ACTIVITIES
 Under Stage 1 Reconnaissance Survey of the
entire area:
1. Stereoscopic examination of small scaled aerial
photographs of the area supplemented by
available maps.
2. Determination control of photography and land
use.
3. Location of feasible routes based on photographs
and maps.
Location of the Proposed Highway

 ACTIVITIES
 Under Stage II Reconnaissance Survey of feasible route:
1. Stereoscopic examination of large-scaled aerial photographs
of each route.
2. Determination of the detailed control of photography and
land use.
3. Preparation of route maps by photogrammetric methods.
4. Location and comparison of feasible routes on photographs
and maps.
5. Selection of the best route.
 Location of the Proposed Highway
 ACTIVITIES
Stage III Preliminary Survey of the best route:
1. Preparation of large scale topographic maps using the route
photograph and photogrammetric methods or preparation of large
scale topographic maps by ground survey guide by best route location
made on photographs in the second stage.
2. Design of the preliminary location.

 Stage IV Location Survey

1. Staking the right of way and the highway and structures for
construction.
Highway Plans and Specifications
 Plans and Specifications are set of documents of instructions and
conditions under which highways and bridges are built.
 The plan contains engineering drawings of the project, whereas, the
specifications is a written instructions and conditions considered as
integral part of the contract between the contractor and highway
agency classified as legal documents.
 The complete detailed scheme for the road which are incorporated in
the geometric designs are:
1. Traffic 5. Structure
2. Drainage 6. Soils
3. Erosion Control 7. Pavement
4.Road side development
Highway Plans and Specifications

Presentation of a Road Plan

1. The upper sheet is allocated for the plan, top view, showing
the horizontal alignment, right of way takings, drainage
arrangement and other features.
2. The lower half is allotted to the profile where the original
elevation of the ground surface is plotted. The roadway
centerline and the vertical alignment or grade line for the
road is indicated.
3. The vertical scale of the profile is usually exaggeratedly
enlarged from five to ten times for precise detail.
4. The profile and other details of the drainage, channels or
connecting roads including ramps are also presented.
Highway Plans and Specifications

 Presentation of a Road Plan

5. The estimated earthworks quantities for every 50 meters
station or other intervals are indicated along the bottom of
each sheet along with the estimated overhead.
6. The roadway cross sections for every situation in the whole
project stretch is indicated on another sheet of the plan.
7. Another sheet of drawings showing all structures and
roadway appurtenances is included.
8. The standard size of the drawing sheet is 55cm x 90cm.
Highway Plans and Specifications
 Partial list of subjects covered by the standard drawing:
1. Pipe culverts
2. Concrete box culverts
3. Guard rail and parapet
4. Curbs
5. Gutters
6. Curb structures
7. Sidewalks
8. Drainage inlet and outlet structures of numerous types
9. Manholes
10. Rip-rap and other devices used for bank protection
11. Fences and right of way
12. Other survey markers
Highway Plans and Specifications

 The Specifications
 Specifications writing is generally different and a delicate
work requiring knowledge of the law of contracts as well
as highway practices and experiences.
 Specifications that are carelessly written and loosely
worded may result in the use in the substandard materials
and poor workmanship.
 Highway Plans and Specifications
 Highway specifications is divided into two:
1. STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS – applies to project implemented by
administration which treat the subject that repeatedly occurs in the agency
work.
2. SPECIAL PROVISIONS – covers peculiar item of the project in question that
include additional modification to standard specifications. This includes
copies of all documents required in securing competitive bids and contracts.
 Specifications are also subdivided into two:
a. The general clause that deals with the bidding procedures and award
execution and control of work and other legal matters.
b. Specifying detail regarding the materials, manner of work execution and
how pay quantities are to be measured.