Maintenance of

Manpower
Job Design and Motivation
COURSE OUTLINE

- Meaning and Definition of Job Design

- Objectives of Job Design
- Major Factors Affecting Job Design
- Methods of Job Design
- Approaches of Job Design
- Steps to Redesign Job of Employees
- Meaning of Motivation
- Types of Motivation Theory
- Applications of Motivation
- Other factors affecting motivation
JOB DESIGN
- its the process of Work arrangement (or rearrangement) aimed
at reducing or overcoming job dissatisfaction and employee
alienation arising from repetitive and mechanistic tasks.

-Job design is the process of organizing work into the tasks

required to perform a specific job. It involves the conscious
efforts to organize tasks, duties and responsibilities into a unit of
work to achieve certain objectives.

-Job design means to decide the contents of a job. It fixes the

duties and responsibilities of the job, the methods of doing the
job and the relationships between the job holder (manager) and
his superiors, subordinates and colleagues.
The main goal of designing a job are as
follows:
1. Facilitating the interest of employees towards the job and enhancing
their satisfaction
2. Increasing employee motivation and productivity
3. Enhancing employees’ skills by identifying their training needs
4. Covering the modern needs of employee participation
5. Ensuring safer working environment
6. Making the communication process clear and effective in the
organization
7. Improving the quality of working life of employees
8. Eliminating the unnecessary levels of supervision, checking, and
control
9. Establishing high-level standards for customer service
10. Minimizing cost by reducing wastage.
FACTORS AFFECTING JOB DESIGN

1. Organizational Factors:
 (a) Work Nature- There are various elements of a job and job design is
required to classify various tasks into a job or a coherent set of jobs. The
various tasks may be planning, executing, monitoring, controlling etc. and all
these are to be taken into consideration while designing a job.
 (b) Ergonomics – Ergonomics aims at designing jobs in such a way that the
physical abilities and individual traits of employees are taken into
consideration so as to ensure efficiency and productivity.
 (c) Workflow- Product and service type often determines the sequence of
work flow. A balance is required between various product or service processes
and a job design ensures this.
 (d) Culture- Organizational culture determines the way tasks are carried out
at the work places. Practices are methods or standards laid out for carrying
out a certain task. These practices often affect the job design especially
when the practices are not aligned to the interests of the union.
Environmental Factors:
Environmental factors affect the job design to a considerable extent.
These factors include both the internal as well as external factors. They
include factor like employee skills and abilities, their availability, and
their socioeconomic and cultural prospects.

(a) Employee availability and abilities

 - Employee skills, abilities and time of availability play a crucial role while
designing the jobs. The above mentioned factors of employees who will
actually perform the job are taken into consideration. Designing a job that is
more demanding and above their skill set will lead to decreased productivity
and employee satisfaction.
(b) Socio economic and cultural expectations
 - Jobs are nowadays becoming more employee centered rather than process
centered. They are therefore designed keeping the employees into
consideration. In addition the literacy level among the employees is also on
the rise. They now demand jobs that are to their linking and competency and
which they can perform the best.
Behavioral Factors:
 Behavioral factors or human factors are those that pertain to the human need and
that need to be satisfied for ensuring productivity at workplace. They include the
elements like autonomy, diversity, feedback, etc.
A brief explanation of some is given below:
(a) Autonomy- Employees should work in an open environment rather than one that
contains fear. It promotes creativity, interdependence and leads to increased
efficiency.
(b) Feedback- Feedback should be an integral part of work. Each employee should
receive proper feedback about his work performance.
c) Diversity- Repetitive jobs often make work monotonous which leads to boredom. A
job should carry sufficient diversity and variety so that it remains as interesting with
every passing day. Job variety/diversity should be given due importance while
designing a job.
(d) Use of skills and abilities- Jobs should be employee rather than process centered.
Though due emphasis needs to be given to the latter but jobs should be designed in a
manner such that an employee is able to make full use of his abilities is able to make
full use of his abilities and perform the job effectively.
 Methods of Job Design
Job Rotation:
it involves shifting a person from one job to another, so that he is able to
understand and learn what each job involves. The company tracks his
performance on every job and decides whether he can perform the job in an
ideal manner.

Advantages
a) Avoid Monopoly:
 Job rotation helps to avoid monopoly of job and
enable the employee to learn new things and
therefore enjoy his job.
(b) Provides an Opportunity to Broaden One’s
Knowledge:
 Due to job rotation the person is able to learn
different job in the organization this broadens
his knowledge.
(c) Avoiding Fraudulent Practice:
 In an organization like bank jobs rotation is
undertaken to prevent employees from doing
any kind of fraud i.e., if a person is handling a
particular job for a very long time he will be
able to find loopholes in the system and use
them for his benefit and indulge (participate) in
fraudulent practices job rotation avoids this.
 Disadvantages
(a) Increases Work Burden:
 Job enlargement increases the work of the
employee and not every company provides
incentives and extra salary for extra work.
Therefore the efforts of the individual may
remain unrecognized.
(b) Increasing Frustration of the Employee:
 In many cases employees end up being frustrated
because increased activities do not result in
increased salaries.
(c) Problem with Union Members:
 Many union members may misunderstand job
enlargement as exploitation of worker and may
take objection to it.
2. Job Enlargement:
Job enlargement involves combining various activities at the same level in the
organization and adding them to the existing job. It increases the scope of the
job. It is also called the horizontal expansion of job activities.

ADVANTAGES
(a) Variety of Skills:
 Job enlargement helps the organization to
improve and increase the skills of the employee
due to organization as well as the individual
benefit.
(b) Improve Earning Capacity:
 Due to job enlargement the person learns many
new activities. When such people apply for jobs
to other companies they can bargain for more
salary.
(c) Wide Range of Activities:
 Job enlargement provides wide range of
activities for employees. Since a single employee
handles multiple activities the company can try
and reduce the number of employees. This
reduces the salary bill for the company.
DISADVANTAGES
(a) Increases Work Burden:
 Job enlargement increases the work of the
employee and not every company provides
incentives and extra salary for extra work.
Therefore the efforts of the individual may
remain unrecognized.
(b) Increasing Frustration of the Employee:
 In many cases employees end up being frustrated
because increased activities do not result in
increased salaries.
(c) Problem with Union Members:
 Many union members may misunderstand job
enlargement as exploitation of worker and may
take objection to it.
Job Enrichment:
Job enrichment is a term given by Fredrick Herzberg. According to him, a few
motivators are added to a job to make it more rewarding, challenging and interesting.
According to Herzberg, the motivating factors to an existing job to make it more
interesting.
The motivating factors can be:
 (a) Giving more freedom.
 (b) Encouraging participation.
 (c) Giving employees the freedom to select the method of working.
 (d) Allowing employees to select the place at which they would like to work.
 (e) Allowing workers to select the tools that they require on the job.
 (f) Allowing workers to decide the layout of plant or office.

Job enrichment gives lot of freedom to the employee but at the same time increases
the responsibility. Some workers are power and responsibility hungry. Job enrichment
satisfies the needs of employees.
 JOB ENRICHMENT
ADVANTAGES
(a) Interesting and Challenging Job:
 When a certain amount of power is given to the
employees it makes the job more challenging for them,
we can say that job enrichment is a method of employee
empowerment.
(b) Improves Decision-Making:
 Through job enrichment we can improve the decision-
making ability of the employee by asking him to decide
on factory layout, method and style of working.
(c) Identifies Future Managerial Calibre:
 When we provide decision-making opportunities to
employees, we can identify which employee is better
than other in decision-making and mark employees for
further promotion.
(d) Identifies Higher Order Needs of Employees:
 This model identifies higher order needs of the employee.
Abraham Maslow’s theory of motivation speaks of these
higher order needs, e.g., ego and esteemed needs, self-
actualization etc. These needs can be achieved through
job enrichment.
(e) Reduces Work Load of Superiors:
 Job enrichment reduces the work load of senior staff.
When decisions are taken by juniors the seniors work load
is reduced.
DISADVANTAGES
 (a) Job enrichment is based on the assumptions that
workers have complete knowledge to take decisions
and they have the right attitude. In reality this might
not be the case due to which there can be problems
in working.
 (b) Job enrichment has negative implications i.e.,
along with usual work decision-making work is also
given to the employees and not many may be
comfortable with this.
 (c) Superiors may feel that power is being taken
away from them and given to the junior’s. This might
lead to ego problems.
 (d) This method will only work in certain situations.
Some jobs already give a lot of freedom and
responsibility; this method will not work for such
jobs.
 (e) Some people are internally dissatisfied with the
organization. For such people no amount of job
enrichment can solve the problem.
APPROACHES TO JOB DESIGN
1. Engineering Approach:

 Scientific management, developed by Frederick W. Taylor, gave rise to the engineering approach to job design. The
key element of this approach was the ‘task idea’ that led to job specialization. The ‘task idea’ is the work of every
workman that is fully planned and laid out by the management, at least one day in advance.

 The workers are given specific instructions on to what is to be done, how it is to be done and the exact time to be
taken to complete the work. This results in the worker using none of his metal or intellectual skills and just doing
what he has been asked to do.

Some of the demerits of overspecialization were:

(i) Repetition – Performing the same tasks repeatedly resulted in boredom. The work was so mechanized and systematic,
that the mental faculties of the workers were not being utilized.

(ii) Mechanical Pacing – All the workers had to work continuously at a predetermined pace. The workers could not take any
breaks nor relax. The pace of work was the same for all the employees, and differences in individual capabilities were not
taken into account.

(iii) No End Product – Due to over-specialization, employees were manufacturing bits and pieces and not turning out any
identifiable end product. Hence, they had little pride or enthusiasm in their work.

(iv) Little Social Interaction – Employees had limited chances of interacting on a casual basis with their co-workers as the
assembly line required constant attention. This made it difficult for employees to build significant social bonds at work.

(v) No Personal Input – Lack of personal control over the job in terms of choosing the methods by which the jobs were to
be performed, the tools that were to be used, the work procedure, or the pace, resulted in employees losing interest in
the job as there was nothing they could improve or change about their jobs.
Human Relations Approach:
 The human relations approach introduced a ‘human touch’ to deal with the problem of over-
specialized jobs. Under this approach, over-specialized jobs needed to be redesigned to
become more satisfying and rewarding to the employees. It was felt that the workers have
social needs which necessitate casual interactions with supervisors and co-workers. So, scope
for flexibility had to be introduced in job design.
 According to the theory of motivation proposed by Herzberg, there are two factors that
affect the job satisfaction-the motivators and hygiene factors. The hygiene factors help in
tackling dissatisfaction among the workers and preventing a negative job environment. Some
of these factors are the working conditions, organizational policies, interpersonal relations,
pay and job security.

Socio-Technical Approach:
 The socio-technical approach to job design is another alternative to the
scientific/engineering approach, which resulted in highly specialized jobs where the
advantages of specialization were gradually negated by its disadvantages, namely,
dissatisfaction and fatigue among the employees.
 In the socio-technical approach, both the technical system and the social system are
emphasized. According to this approach, jobs should be designed taking a holistic view of
both physical and social environments. Ideally, this merges the technical needs of the
organization with the social needs of the employees.
Steps to Redesign Job of Employees
These steps are as follows:
1. Identification of Jobs to be Redesigned:
 The first step in job redesign is to identify the jobs to be redesigned. Job redesign is not an
automatic process but when any change in contextual variables affecting jobs takes place, it
affects the quality of job performance.
 For example, when organization’s information systems are changed from one form to another
form, say from manually-operated to computer-based, this change affects the job
performance of related persons, say accounts clerks. In the new situation, the jobs of
accounts clerks have to be redesigned to suit the new situation. Similar contextual changes
may take place in other jobs.
2. Identification of Contents to be Redesigned:
 After identifying the jobs to be redesigned, contents that are to be changed have to be
identified. This is done through the process of job analysis. By undertaking job analysis
process, new job description for each job is prepared which shows the contents of the job as
well as its relationship to other jobs. Simultaneously, job specification for each job is
prepared.
Steps to Redesign Job of Employees
3. Effecting Redesigning:
 Based on job description, a job is redesigned. Whenever, there is any change in the nature of
any job because of change in contextual variables, its core dimensions remain the same.
These core dimensions are skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and
feedback. Therefore, redesigning is effected in these dimensions.
4. Evaluating Effect of Redesigning:
 When a job is redesigned, it is put in operation on experimental basis. During this period,
attempt is made to evaluate how the redesigned job is facilitating or constraining the job
holder and other jobs with which it is linked. Feedback is received from all the persons
concerned—job holder, his superior, his subordinates, HR professionals concerned and, if
possible, those outsiders who interact with the redesigned job holder. In the light of this
feedback, further redesigning is effected, if required. When everything is satisfactory, the
redesigned job becomes the part of the organization’s jobs.
WHAT IS MOTIVATION?

MOTIVATION is the term used to describe the

forces within the individual that account for the
level, direction and persistence of effort
expended at work.
Motivation is a person's internal disposition to be
concerned with and approach positive incentives
and avoid negative incentives. To further this,
an incentive is the anticipated reward or
aversive event available in the environment
1.Need-based theories
Need-based theories of motivation focus on an employee's drive to satisfy a variety
of needs through their work. These needs range from basic physiological needs for
survival to higher psychoemotional needs like belonging and self-actualization.

 Maslow's hierarchy of needs

 An interpretation of Maslow's hierarchy of
needs, represented as a pyramid with the more
basic needs at the bottom.
 Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (1943)
was applied to offer an explanation of how the
work environment motivates employees. In
accordance with Maslow's theory, which was
not specifically developed to explain behavior
in the workplace, employees strive to satisfy
their needs in a hierarchical order.
Need for achievement
 Atkinson & McClelland's Need for Achievement Theory is the most relevant
and applicable need-based theory in the I–O psychologist's arsenal. Unlike
other need-based theories, which try to interpret every need, Need for
Achievement allows the I–O psychologist to concentrate research into a
tighter focus. Studies show those who have a high need for achievement
prefer moderate levels of risk, seek feedback, and are likely to immerse
themselves in their work. Achievement motivation can be broken down into
three types:
 Achievement – seeks position advancement, feedback, and sense of
accomplishment
 Authority – need to lead, make an impact and be heard by others
 Affiliation – need for friendly social interactions and to be liked.
 Because most individuals have a combination of these three types (in various
proportions), an understanding of these achievement motivation
characteristics can be a useful assistance to management in job
placement, recruitment, etc.
Cognitive process theories
Equity theory
 Equity Theory is derived from social exchange theory. It explains motivation in the workplace
as a cognitive process of evaluation, whereby the employee seeks to achieve a balance
between inputs or efforts in the workplace and the outcomes or rewards received or
anticipated.
 In particular, Equity Theory research has tested employee sentiments regarding equitable
compensation. Employee inputs take the form of work volume and quality, performance,
knowledge, skills, attributes and behaviors. The company-generated outcomes include
rewards such as compensation, praise and advancement opportunities. The employee
compares their inputs relative to outcomes; and, then, extrapolating to the social context,
the employee compares their input/outcome ratio with the perceived ratios of others. If the
employee perceives an inequity, the theory posits that the employee will adjust their
behavior to bring things into balance.
 Equity Theory has proven relevance in situations where an employee is under-compensated. If
an employee perceives that they are under-compensated, they can adjust their behavior to
achieve equilibrium in several different ways:
 reduce input to a level they believe better matches their level of compensation
 change or adjust the comparative standard to which they are comparing their situation
 cognitively adjust their perception of their inputs or the outcomes received
 withdraw
 ask their employer for increased compensation
Social cognitive theory
Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory is another cognitive process theory that offers
the important concept of self-efficacy for explaining employee's level of
motivation relative to workplace tasks or goals. Self-efficacy is an individual's
belief in their ability to achieve results in a given scenario. Empirically, studies
have shown a strong correlation between self-efficacy and performance. The
concept has been extended to group efficacy, which is a group's belief that it can
achieve success with a given task or project.

Self-efficacy is seen to mediate important aspects of how an employee

undertakes a given task, such as the level of effort and persistence. An employee
with high self-efficacy is confident that effort they put forth has a high likelihood
of resulting in success. In anticipation of success, an employee is willing to put
forth more effort, persist longer, remain focused on the task, seek feedback and
choose more effective task strategies.
Behavioral approach to motivation
 Any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior increasing is a reinforcer. An
effective use of positive reinforcement would be frequent praise while an employee is
learning a new task. An employee's behavior can also be shaped during the learning
process if approximations of the ideal behavior are praised or rewarded. The frequency
of reinforcement is an important consideration. While frequent praise during the
learning process can be beneficial, it can be hard to sustain indefinitely.
 A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement, where the frequency of reinforcement
varies unpredictably, also can be highly effective if used in instances where it is ethical
to do so. Providing praise on a variable-ratio schedule would be appropriate, whereas
paying an employee on an unpredictable variable-ratio schedule would not be.
 Compensation and other reward programs provide behavioral reinforcement, and if
carefully crafted, can provide powerful incentives to employees. Behavioral principles
can also be used to address undesirable behaviors in the workplace, but punishment
should be used judiciously. If overused, punishment can negatively impact employee's
perception of fairness in the workplace. In general, the less time that elapses between
a behavior and its consequence, the more impactful a consequence is likely to be.
Job-based theories
 Motivation–hygiene theory
 Herzberg's Motivation–Hygiene Theory holds that the content of a person's job is the
primary source of motivation. In other words, he argued against the commonly held
belief that money and other compensation is the most effective form of motivation to
an employee. Instead, Herzberg posed that high levels of what he dubbed hygiene
factors (pay, job security, status, working conditions, fringe benefits, job policies, and
relations with co-workers) could only reduce employee dissatisfaction (not create
satisfaction). Motivation factors (level of challenge, the work itself, responsibility,
recognition, advancement, intrinsic interest, autonomy, and opportunities for
creativity) however, could stimulate satisfaction within the employee, provided that
minimum levels of the hygiene factors were reached. For an organization to take full
advantage of Herzberg's theory, they must design jobs in such a way that motivators are
built in, and thus are intrinsically rewarding. While the Motivation–Hygiene Theory was
the first to focus on job content, it has not been strongly supported through empirical
studies. Frederick Herzberg also came up with the concept of job enrichment, which
expands jobs to give employees a greater role in planning, performing, and evaluating
their work, thus providing the chance to satisfy their motivators needs. Some suggested
ways would be to remove some management control, provide regular and
continuously feedback. Proper job enrichment, therefore, involves more than simply
giving the workers extra tasks to perform. It means expanding the level of knowledge
and skills needed to perform the job.
Job characteristics theory
Shortly after Herzberg's Two-factor theory, Hackman and Oldham contributed their own, more
refined, job-based theory; Job characteristic theory (JCT). JCT attempts to define the
association between core job dimensions, the critical psychological states that occur as a result
of these dimensions, the personal and work outcomes, and growth-need strength. Core job
dimensions are the characteristics of a person's job. The core job dimensions are linked directly
to the critical psychological states. The Job Characteristics Model (JCM), as designed by Hackman
and Oldham attempts to use job design to improve employee intrinsic motivation. They show that
any job can be described in terms of five key job characteristics:
According to the JCT, an organization that provides workers with sufficient levels of skill
variety (using different skills and talents in performing work), task identity (contributing to a
clearly identifiable larger project), and task significance (impacting the lives or work of other
people) is likely to have workers who feel their work has meaning and value. Sufficiently high
levels of autonomy (independence, freedom and discretion in carrying out the job) will inspire
the worker to feel responsibility for the work; and sufficiently high levels of Task
Feedback (receiving timely, clear, specific, detailed, actionable information about the
effectiveness of their job performance) will inspire the worker to feel the organization is
authentically interested in helping to foster their professional development and growth. The
combined effect of these psychological states results in desired personal and work outcomes:
intrinsic motivation, job satisfaction, performance quality, low absenteeism, and low turnover
rate.
Lastly, the glue of this theory is the "growth-need strength" factor which ultimately determines
the effectiveness of the core job dimensions on the psychological states, and likewise the
effectiveness of the critical psychological states on the affective outcomes.
Self-regulation theory

 A theory based in self-efficacy, Self Regulation is "A theory of motivation

based on the setting of goals and the receipt of accurate feedback that is
monitored to enhance the likelihood of goal attainment". It is presumed that
people consciously set goals for themselves that guide and direct their
behavior toward the attainment of these goals. These people also engage in
self-monitoring or self-evaluation. Self-evaluation can be helped along if
feedback is given when a person is working on their goals because it can align
how a person feels about how they are doing to achieve a goal and what they
are actually doing to achieve their goals. In short, feedback provides an
"error" message that a person who is off-track can reevaluate their goal.
The "error" message discussed above creates a negative feedback loop. This
negative feedback loop needs to be addressed by a contingent reinforcement.
To influence behaviors that would contribute to goal attainment, individuals
and/or managers can use either positive reinforcement or negative
reinforcement.
 Work engagement
A new approach to work motivation is the idea of Work Engagement or "A conception
of motivation whereby individuals are physically immersed in emotionally and
intellectually fulfilling work. "This theory draws on many aspects of I/O Psychology.
This theory proposes that motivation taps into energy where it allows a person to
focus on a task. According to Schaufeli and Bakker there are three dimensions to work
engagement.
 Vigor- a sense of personal energy for work
 Dedication- experiencing a sense of pride in one's work and challenge from it
 Absorption- The Capacity to be engrossed in work and experiencing a sense of
flow.
Work Engagement forwards the notion that individuals have the ability to contribute
more to their own productivity than organizations typically allow. An example would
be to allow workers to take some risks and not punish them if the risks leads to
unsuccessful outcomes. "In short, work engagement can be thought of as an
interaction of individuals and work. Engagement can occur when both facilitate each
other, and engagement will not occur when either (or both) thwarts each other." Some
critics of work engagement say that this is nothing new, just "old wine in a new
bottle."
 Applications of motivation
Organizational reward systems
 Organizational reward systems have a significant impact on employees' level of motivation. Rewards
can be either tangible or intangible. Various forms of pay, such as salary, commissions, bonuses,
employee ownership programs and various types of profit or gain sharing programs, are all
important tangible rewards. While fringe benefits have a positive impact on attraction and
retention, their direct impact on motivation and performance is not well-defined.
 Salaries play a crucial role in the tangible reward system. They are an important factor in attracting
new talent to an organization as well as retaining talent. Compensating employees well is one way
for an organization to reinforce an employee's value to the organization. If an organization is known
for paying their employees top dollar, then they may develop a positive reputation in the job market
as a result.
 Through incentive compensation structures, employees can be guided to focus their attention and
efforts on certain organizational goals. The goals that are reinforced through incentive pay should
be carefully considered to make sure they are in alignment with the organizational objectives. If
there are multiple rewards programs, it is important to consider if there might be any conflicting
goals. For example, individual and team-based rewards can sometime work at cross-purposes.
 Important forms of intangible rewards include praise, recognition and rewards. Intangible rewards
are ones from which an employee does not derive any material gain. Such rewards have the greatest
impact when they soon follow the desired behavior and are closely tied to the performance. If an
organization wants to use praise or other intangible rewards effectively, praise should be offered for
a high level of performance and for things that they employee has control over. Some studies have
shown that praise can be as effective as tangible rewards.
Motivation through design of work
 Reward-based systems are certainly the more common practice for attempting to influence
motivation within an organization, but some employers strive to design the work itself to be
more conducive. There are multiple ways an organization can leverage job design principles
to increase motivation. Three of the predominant approaches will be discussed here: the
Humanistic Approach, the Job Characteristics Approach, and the Interdisciplinary Approach.
 Humanistic Approach
 The Humanistic Approach to job design was a reaction to "worker dissatisfaction over
Scientific Management" and focused on providing employees with more input and an
opportunity to maximize their personal achievement as referenced by Jex and Britt. Jobs
should also provide intellectual stimulation, opportunities for creativity, and greater
discretion over work-related activities. Two approaches used in the Humanistic Approach to
job design are job rotation and job enrichment. Job rotation allows employees to switch to
different jobs which allows them to learn new skills and provides them with greater variety.
According to Jex and Britt, this would be most effective for simple jobs that can become
mundane and boring over time. Job enrichment is focused on leveraging those aspects of jobs
that are labeled motivators, such as control, intellectual challenge, and creativity. The most
common form of job enrichment is vertical loading where additional tasks or discretion
enhances the initial job design. While there is some evidence to support that job enrichment
improves motivation, it is important to note that it is not effective for all people. Some
employees are not more motivated by enriched jobs.
 Job Characteristics Approach
 The Job Characteristics Approach to job design is based on how core dimensions affect motivation. These
dimensions include autonomy, variety, significance, feedback, and identity. The goal of JCT job design is to
utilize specific interventions in an effort to enhance these core dimensions.
 Vertical Loading – Like the tactic used in the Humanistic Job Enrichment approach, this intervention is
designed to enhance autonomy, task identity, task significance, and skill variety by increasing the number of
tasks and providing greater levels of control over how those tasks are completed.
 Task Combination – By combining tasks into larger units of work and responsibility, task identity may be
improved.
 Natural Work Units – A form of task combination that represents a logical body of work and responsibility
that may enhance both task significance and task identity.
 Establishing Client Relationships – Designs interactions between employees and customers, both internal and
external, to enhance task identity, feedback, and task significance. This is accomplished by improving the
visibility of beneficial effects on customers.
 Feedback – By designing open feedback channels, this intervention attempts to increase the amount and
value of feedback received.
 The process of designing work so as to enhance individual motivation to perform the work is called Job
enrichment
 While the JCT approach to job design has a significant impact on job satisfaction, the effects on
performance are more mixed. Much of the success of implementation of JCT practices is dependent on the
organization carefully planning interventions and changes to ensure impact throughout the organization is
anticipated. Many companies may have difficulty implementing JCT changes throughout the organization
due to its high cost and complexity.
Other factors affecting motivation
 Creativity

 On the cutting edge of research pertaining to motivation in the workplace is the integration of motivation and creativity.
Essentially, according to Ambrose and Kulik, the same variables that predict intrinsic motivation are associated with creativity.
This is a helpful conclusion in that organizations can measure and influence both creativity and motivation simultaneously.
Further, allowing employees to choose creative and challenging jobs/tasks has been shown to improve motivation. Malmelin
and Virta indicate creating new processes or procedures goes along with the jobs/task. In order to increase creativity, setting
"creativity goals" can positively influence the process, along with allowing more autonomy (i.e., giving employees freedom to
feel/be creative). Other studies have found that team support may enable more creativity in a group setting, also increasing
motivation. Keeping creative employees productive and satisfied could be the key to retaining even the most difficult
employees.

 Groups and teams

 As the workplace is changing to include more group-based systems, researching motivation within these groups is of growing
importance. To date, a great amount of research has focused on the Job characteristic theory and the Goal-setting Theory.
While more research is needed that draws on a broader range of motivation theories, research thus far has concluded several
things: (a) semi-autonomous groups report higher levels of job scope (related to intrinsic job satisfaction), extrinsic
satisfaction, and organizational commitment; and (b) developmentally mature teams have higher job motivation and
innovation. Further, voluntarily formed work teams report high work motivation. Though research shows that appropriate goal-
setting influences group motivation and performance, more research is needed in this area (group goals, individual goals,
cohesiveness, etc.). There are inseparable mediating variables consisting of group cohesiveness, commitment, and
performance. As the workplace environment calls for more and more teams to be formed, research into motivation of teams is
ever-pressing. Thus far, overarching research merely suggests that individual-level and team-level sources of motivation are
congruent with each other. Consequently, research should be expanded to apply more theories of motivation; look at group
dynamics; and essentially conclude how groups can be most impacted to increase motivation and, consequently, performance.

 Culture

 Organizational cultures can be broken down into three groups: Strong, Strategically Appropriate, and Adaptive. Each has been
identified with high performing organizations and has particular implications on motivation in the workplace.

 Strength

 The most widely reported effect of culture on performance is that strong cultures result in high performance.The three reasons
for this are goal alignment, motivation, and the resulting structure provided. Goal alignment is driven by the proposed unified
voice that drives employees in the same direction. Motivation comes from the strength of values and principles in such a
 A strategically appropriate culture motivates due to the direct support for performance in the market and industry:
"The better the fit, the better the performance; the poorer the fit, the poorer the performance," state Kotter &
Heskett.There is an appeal to the idea that cultures are designed around the operations conditions a firm encounters
although an outstanding issue is the question of adapting culture to changes in the environment.
 Adaptability
 Another perspective in culture literature asserts that in order for an organization to perform at a high level over a
long period of time, it must be able to adapt to changes in the environment. According to Ralph Kilmann, in such a
culture "there is a shared feeling of confidence: the members believe, without a doubt, that they can effectively
manage whatever new problems and opportunities will come their way." In effect, the culture is infused with a high
degree of self-efficacy and confidence. As with the strong culture, critics point to the fact that the theory provides
nothing in the way of appropriate direction of adaptation that leads to high performance.
 Competing Values Framework
 Another perspective on culture and motivation comes from the work of Cameron & Quinn and the Competing Values
Framework. They divide cultures into four quadrants: Clan, Adhocracy, Market, Hierarchy, with particular
characteristics that directly affect employee motivation.
 Clan cultures are collaborative and driven by values such as commitment, communication, and individual
development. Motivation results from human development, employee engagement, and a high degree of open
communication.
 Adhocracy cultures are creative and innovative. Motivation in such cultures arises from finding creative solutions to
problems, continually improving, and empowering agility.
 Market cultures focus on value to the customer and are typically competitive and aggressive. Motivation in the
market culture results from winning in the marketplace and creating external partnerships.
 And finally, Hierarchy cultures value control, efficiency, and predictability. Motivation in such a culture relies on
effectiveness, capability, and consistency. Effective hierarchy cultures have developed mature and capable processes
which support smooth operations.
 Culture has been shown to directly affect organizational performance. When viewed through the lens of accepted
behaviors and ingrained values, culture also profoundly affects motivation. Whether one looks at the type of
culture—strong, strategically appropriate, or adaptive—as Kotter & Heskett do, or at the style of culture—Clan,
Adhocracy, Market, or Hierarchy—as Cameron & Quinn do, the connection between culture and motivation becomes
clear and provides insights into how to hire, task, and motivate employees.
 Personality Approach
 Personality traits, pre-dispositions, and behaviors can have an outcome on work
motivation. Influences can be conceptualized in the Big Five trait theory (Barrick
& Mount, 1991; John & Srivastava, 1999). The personality theory can characterize
these traits into conscientiousness, agreeableness, extroversion/introversion,
openness to experience, and emotional stability (Stajkovic, Bandura, Locke, Lee,
& Sergent, 2018). There are two types of personalities: Type A and Type B. Type A's
are considered more dominant, aggressive, and work oriented. Type B's are detail
focused, task oriented, and possess higher self-control. Individual perceptions may
differ based on the job stressor or outcome (Day, & Jreige, 2002). Work demands
that reflect on personality attributes can depend on tasks, job complexity,
relationships, and work stress. The personality attributes most important for your
workplace comes down to understanding the organizational work behaviors,
characteristics of the jobs, and future strategies of the company.Personalities can
be an influence on creativity in the workforce and behavioral expectations.