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2.3 Carbohydrates and Lipids-STUDENT
2.3 Carbohydrates and Lipids-STUDENT
2.3 Carbohydrates and Lipids-STUDENT
3
Carbohydrates
and lipids
Neatoshop.com
Most commonly
found in milk,
Glucose but also found
in cereals
Galactose www.indigo.com
http://www.ausetute.com.au/sugars.html
2.3.U1 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.
Commonly found in
fruits and honey
It is the sweetest
naturally occurring
carbohydrate
http://www.flickr.com/photos/max_westby/4045923/
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Red_Apple.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:3dfructose.png
2.3.U1 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.
Deoxyribose differs as
shown in the diagram,
and forms the
backbone of DNA
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maltose_syrup.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maltose_Haworth.svg
2.3.U1 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sucrose.gif
http://www.flickr.com/photos/carowallis1/4388310394/
Polysaccharide
– Outline how to create some polysaccharide
– State what molecule is being removed in the process you outlined
in a)
– State THREE different polysaccharides that you need to know for
the syllabus
• Function
• Location (in which classification of organism or which particular
cell/organelle)
2.3.U1 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.
2.3.A1 Structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and glycogen in
humans.
http://www.majordifferences.com/2013/02/difference-between-
amylose-and_17.html#.WdxD3Y-Cy1s
2.3.A1 Structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and
glycogen in humans.
Amylose Amylopectin
chain of α-glucose molecules Chain of α-glucose molecules
300-3,000 glucose units 2,000-200,000 glucose units
(larger than amylose)
Un-branched Branched
Helix-shaped Globular-shaped
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/jsmol/glucose.html
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/jsmol/glucose.html
http://www.eufic.org/article/pt/nutricao/gorduras/expid/23/
2.3.U2 Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or
polyunsaturated.
Saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated?
Q1 Oleic Acid
Q2 Caproic Acid
Q3 α-Linolenic Acid
2.3.U2 Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or
polyunsaturated.
COMPARE
Very common in nature Rare in nature – usually artificially produced to
e.g. in almonds, olive oil, avocado, fish produce solid fats, e.g. margarine from vegetable oils.
the hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the two the hydrogen atoms are on the opposite side of the
carbon atoms two carbon atoms
The double bond causes a bend in the fatty acid chain The double bond does not causes a bend in the fatty
acid chain
Therefore cis-isomers are only loosely packed Trans-isomers can be closely packed
Triglycerides formed from cis-isomers have melting Triglycerides formed from trans-isomers have melting
points – they usually liquid at room temperature points – they usually solid at room temperature
2.3.U3 Unsaturated fatty acids can be cis or trans isomers.
Cis-isomers Trans-isomers
Triglycerides formed from cis-isomers have Triglycerides formed from trans-isomers have
melting points – they usually liquid at room melting points – they usually solid at room
temperature temperature
2.3.U3 Unsaturated fatty acids can be cis or trans isomers.
???
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2.3.U3 Unsaturated fatty acids can be cis or trans isomers.
http://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-2-molecular-
biology/23-carbohydrates-and-lipids/lipid-health-risks.html
http://web.stanford.edu/group/hopes/cgi-bin/hopes_test/fatty-acids/
2.3.A3 Lipids are more suitable for long-term energy storage in
humans than carbohydrates.
http://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-2-molecular-
biology/23-carbohydrates-and-lipids/lipid-health-risks.html
2.3.A2 Scientific evidence for health risks of trans fats and
saturated fatty acids.
There have been many claims about the effects of different types of fat on human health. The main
concern is coronary heart disease (CHD). In this disease the coronary arteries become partially blocked
by fatty deposits, leading to blood clot formation and heart attacks.
• A positive correlation has been found between saturated fatty acid intake and rates of CHD in many
studies.
• Diets rich in olive oil, which contains cis-monounsaturated fatty acids, are traditionally eaten in
countries around the Mediterranean. The populations of these countries typically have low rates of
CHD and it has been claimed that this is due to the intake of cis-monounsaturated fatty acids.
• Correlation ≠ causation. Another factor, e.g. dietary fibre could be responsible.
• There are populations that do not fit the correlation such as the Maasai of Kenya. They have a diet
that is rich in meat, fat, blood and milk. They therefore have a high consumption of saturated fats,
yet CHD is almost unknown among the Maasai.
• Genetic factors in these populations could be responsible.
• Other aspects of the diet and activities could explain the CHD rates.
• There is also a positive correlation between amounts of trans-fat consumed and rates of CHD.
• Other risk factors have been tested, to see if they can account for the correlation, but none did.
Trans-fats therefore probably do cause CHD.
• In patients who had died from CHD, fatty deposits in the diseased arteries have been found to
contain high concentrations of trans-fats, which gives more evidence of a causal link.
http://oliveoilsindia.com/green-olives/green-olives.jpg
2.3.S2 Determination of body mass index by calculation or use of a
nomogram.
Body Mass Index (BMI) is used as a
screening tool to identify possible weight
problems, however, BMI is not a diagnostic
In some parts of the world food supplies are
tool. To determine if excess weight is a
insufficient or are unevenly distributed and many
health risk further assessments are needed
people as a result are underweight.
such as:
• skinfold thickness measurements
In other parts of the world a likelier cause of being
• evaluations of diet
underweight is anorexia nervosa. This is a
• physical activity
psychological condition that involves voluntary
• and family history
starvation and loss of body mass.
The table below can be used to assess an
Obesity is an increasing problem
adult’s status
in some countries. Obesity increases the risk of
conditions such as coronary heart disease and type II
diabetes. It reduces life expectancy significantly and BMI Status
is increasing the overall costs of health care in Below 18.5 Underweight
countries where rates of obesity are rising.
18.5 – 24.9 Normal
25.0 – 29.9 Overweight
30.0 and Above Obese
2.3.S2 Determination of body mass index by calculation or use of a
nomogram.
BMI is calculated the same way for both
adults and children. The calculation is
based on the following formulas:
Example:
Oxford Baccaulareate
2.3.S2 Determination of body mass index by calculation or use of a
nomogram.
• Obesity
• Dietary energy deficiency
• Kwasiorkhor
• Anorexia nervosa
• Coronary heart disease
International-mindedness
‘Variation in the prevalence of different health
problems around the world’
https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-releases/new-model-for-
predicting-cardiovascular-disease-risk-worldwide/
Cardiovascular disease
JAPAN
Cardiovascular disease
U.S.A
Cardiovascular disease
NORWAY
https://www.fhi.no/en/op/hin/health--disease/cardiovascular-disease-
in-norway---/
Cardiovascular disease
INDIA
https://www.slideshare.net/garimagupta52/co
ronary-heart-disease-epidemiology
International-mindedness
‘Variation in the prevalence of different health
problems around the world’
• State the overall trend regarding CVD that is
• What is our evaluation here? Can you outline the
factors affecting mortality rate:
• Poor diet (either due to poverty or due to choice or a
combination of both)
• Poor diet leads to low HDL level which is supposed to carry
with it the LDL to the liver to be processed.
• Lack of physical activity leading to lower blood pressure
• Stress-induced
• Age-related (highly correlated)
2.3.A4 Evaluation of evidence and the methods used to obtain the
evidence for health claims made about lipids.
http://www.foxnews.com/health/2013/02/18/raspberry-ketone-be-wary-this-diet-trend/
http://www.forbes.com/2004/04/21/cz_af_0421feat.html
http://www.badscience.net/2009/08/health-warning-exercise-makes-you-fat/
2.3.A4 Evaluation of evidence and the methods used to obtain the
evidence for health claims made about lipids.
Evidence for health claims comes from research. Some of this research is more
scientifically valid than others.
Key questions to consider for the
strengths are: Evaluation = Make an appraisal by weighing
• Is there a (negative or positive) up the strengths and limitations
correlation between intake of the
lipid being investigated and rate of the
disease or the health benefit? Key questions to consider for the limitations are:
• Was the measure of the health a valid one? e.g. cholesterol
• If instead mean values are being levels in blood are more informative than body mass index
compared how different are they? • How large was the sample size? Larger samples are more
Has this difference been assessed reliable.
statistically? • Does the sample reflect the population as a whole or just a
• How widely spread is the data? This particular sex, age, state of health, lifestyle or ethnic
can be assessed by the spread of data background?
points or the relative size of error • Was the data gathered from human or animal trials? If only
done of animals how applicable are the findings?
bars. The more widely spread the data • Were all the important control variables, e.g. level of
the smaller the significance can be activity, effectively controlled?
placed on the correlation and/or the • Were the levels and frequency of the lipids (or substance
conclusion. studied) intake realistic?
• How rigorous were the methods used to gather data? e.g. If
n.b. it is easiest to consider strengths by only a survey was used how truthful were the respondents?
looking at effectively drawn graphs.
2.3.A3 Lipids are more suitable for long-term energy storage in
humans than carbohydrates.
Functions of lipids:
• Structure: Phospholipids are a main
component of cell membranes
• Hormonal signalling: Steroids are
involved in hormonal signalling (e.g.
estrogen, progesterone, testosterone)
• Insulation: Fats in animals can serve as
heat insulators while sphingolipids in the
myelin sheath (of neurons) can serve as
electrical insulators
• Protection: Triglycerides may form a
tissue layer around many key internal
organs and provide protection against
physical injury
• Storage of energy: Triglycerides can be • Lipids are normally used for long-term
used as a long-term energy storage energy storage whereas carbohydrates are
source used for short-term energy storage
• The lipids that are used are fats. They are
stored in specialized groups of cells called
adipose tissue. Adipose tissue is located
immediately beneath the skin and also
around some organs including the kidneys.
http://www.flickr.com/photos/johnnystiletto/5411371373/
2.3.A3 Lipids are more suitable for long-term energy storage in
humans than carbohydrates.
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https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Bat#mediaviewer/File:PikiWiki_Israel_11327_Wildlife_and_Plants_of_Israel-Bat-003.jpg
2.3.A3 Lipids are more suitable for long-term energy storage in
humans than carbohydrates.
Why is glycogen is needed at all?
Glucose in the bloodstream is for immediate use and will either be used in
respiration to yield ATP or converted to glycogen or fat
An analogy: Wallet
(Glycogen)
easy to get to,
would be too big if you put
in all your money
You are
paid in cash
(Glucose)
Bank
(Fat)
Can put lots of money here, more
of a hassle to get it back out
Spend it!
(Respiration)
Bibliography / Acknowledgments
Jason de Nys
Chris Pine