Memory

Dr.Chintan Shah
MPT(Neuro),D.ACu
 Defination:
 Memory is defined as the ability to retain the
learned material.

 It occurs in a 3 way process:

 1) Encoding
 2) Retention/Storage
 3) Retrieval
 1)Encoding:
 We receive sensory information from the
environment which is put into some form of code.
So this stage is called as Encoding.
 From encoding, the material then get stored in our
brain.
 That means the sensory information which is
transformed into a code is absorbed and kept in the
form of neuro-chemical processes inside the brain.
 EX: any particular name like Jack, Jill is
transformed into a code - NAME
 Any object like pen, pencil is transformed into code-
OBJECT

 After this comes the stage of Storage.

 2) Storage:
 It is the process of actually putting the coded
information into memory.

 3) Retrievel:
 It is the process of gaining access to the
encoded & stored information when it is to be
used.
 Theory of Memory:

 Information-Processing Theory:
 It was given by Atkinson and Shiffrin.
 It emphasizes the processing of information in
stages or steps:
 1) Sensory register
 2) Short term memory(STM)
 3) Long term memory (LTM)
 1)Sensory register:
 When we receive information from the
environment, not all of it is retained by us. The
initial , sensory impressions go into sensory
register.
 This information remains with us for very few
seconds.
 The max capacity of sensory registor is upto 30
secs.
 It has relatively large storage capacity (16 items
or more)
 2) Short-term memory:
 It keeps information from 30 secs onwards to
minutes and couple of hours.
 Holds relatively small amount of information
about 7 items
 Type of information stored: Sounds, images,
words or sentences.
 3) Long term Memory:
 In the long term memory, information is stored for
few hours, days, months, or even lifetime.
 Our day to day experiences are recorded in the
long term memory.
 Our academic memory is also stored in the long
term memory.
 No limit for storage capacity
 It consists of words, sentences, ideas, concepts
and life experiences.

Two types:
 1) Semantic Memory:
 Contains meaning of words & concept and rules for
using them in language and thinking.
 Semantic memory refers to the memory of
meanings, understandings, and other concept-
based knowledge unrelated to specific
experiences.
 The conscious recollection of factual
information and general knowledge about the
world is generally thought to be independent of
context and personal relevance.
 Ex: Is a nail pet animal or a tool?
 You can immediately answer without thinking
that nail is a type of tool.
 2) Episodic Memory:
 Memory of specific things that have happened
to a person.
 It is that episode which is actually experienced
by the person.
 Ex: I studied hard for 4 years and then only I
got such valuable degree.
 Forgetting Process: ( Why do we forget)/
Factors affecting Learning:

 These are the following reasons:

 1) Interference
 2)Motivated Forgetting
 3) Poor Retrieval( Failure Retrieval)
 4) Overload
 5) Decay

 1) Interference:
 Whenever we learn something new, there is an
existing bank of past learning.
 These two learnings may interact with each other
and cause forgetting.
 Two types of interference are known to occur:
 A) Proactive Interference:
 Here something that is learnt in the past (past
learning) acts on a new learning and causes
interference.
 So past learning is so strong that it will interfere
with the new learning.

 B) Retroactive Interference:
 Here a new learning acts on a past learning and
causes forgetting.
 Here, the new learning is such that it will
interfere with the past learning.
 2)Motivated Forgetting:
 Sometimes we forget information because of
some unpleasant associations (trauma, fight,
injury, bad dream etc).
 This makes that event unpleasant and causes
repression ( press down those facts that you
don’t like.)
 In repression the information is not lost but it is
made inaccessible to the person.
 3) Poor Retrieval/ Failure Retrieval:
 Sometimes information that is stored in memory
cannot be brought up when required.
 Ex : Students answering an exam may
suddenly find themselves unable to answer a
question that they had learned earlier. This may
happen for 2 reasons:

 1) Excess anxiety
When a person is too much anxious, they
may be unable to recollect learnt material.
 2) May be because of using inadequate cue for
retrieval
 4)Overload:
 If you attempt to learn too many facts within a
short span of time, it may cause an overload on
memory and some facts may be forgotten.

 5) Decay:
 It is loss of information that is not in active use.
 Ex: If you meet a person after a long time, then
you might forget his face or even name.
 Effective ways of learning Or
Method to improve memory:
 Memory depends on the efficient method of
learning. Some of the methods are:
 1) Spaced vs Unspaced method
 2) Whole vs Part method
 3) Incidental vs Intentional learning
 4) Knowledge of result
 5) Overlearning / Repetitions
 6) Reading Vs Recitation
 7) Serial vs Free Recall
 8) Mneumonic method
a)Memory pegs
b) The method of loci
c) Rhyming method
d) Stories you tell yourself (Organization)
e) Remembering faces and names
f) Chunking
1) Spaced vs Unspaced(Massed):
 Learning the material at one continuous
sitting is known as Unspaced or Massed
learning.

 Learning the material over a period of time

with interval in between is known as Spaced
or Distributed learning.

 Many studies have been done to find that which

of the two methods is more beneficial, then
many studies are in favour of spaced method,
provided there is sufficient time to learn.
 2)Whole vs Part:
 Learning the whole material at one stretch is
Whole method.
 Dividing the material into small units is Part
method.

 The efficiency of both the method depends on:

 the length of the material to be learnt ie, if
length is more then Part is more beneficial then
Whole method
 intelligence of that person and
 also his age ie. If the age is less then Whole
method is more beneficial then Part method.
 3) Incidental and Intentional Learning:
 Learning sometimes may occur incidentally
without notice is called as Incidental Learning
 Example:
 Learning behaviour & mannerism from our
parents

 Intentional Learning is when an individual is

motivated to learn.
 Example:
 Teacher motivates students to study & learn
 4) Knowledge of result:
 Studies show that frequent and regular review
of the amount of progress being made towards
the goal, acts as a strong motive to promote
continuing effort on the part of the learner.

 Example:
 If the goal of the student is to complete the
whole syllabus in a month, then by frequent and
regular review of the amount of progress being
made towards the goal which is to complete the
syllabus, acts as a strong motive and helps the
learner to complete it in that stipulated time
period.
 5) Overlearning/Repetitions:
 By repeating the same thing which is already
learned many times, will help the learner to
retain the material for a longer period of time.

 Example:
 Before the exams, the more repetition of the
syllabus will help the student to remember
easily for a longer period of time.
 5) Reading Vs Recitation:
 Reading is a complex cognitive process .
 In this method, the person is given the specific
material and the person has to read that material.
 The reading process requires continuous practice,
development, and refinement.

 A Recitation is a presentation to demonstrate

knowledge of a subject or to provide instruction to
others.
 In recitations, the person just review the material,
and then expand the concepts, and carry on a
discussion.
 7) Serial vs Free call learning:
 In Serial learning, participants must recall a list
in its presented order, and this order is
preserved from trial to trial.
 Example: Remembering the name of the
students according to their class roll numbers is
Serial Learning.
 In Multitrial free recall, participants may recall
list items in any order, and the presentation
order is randomized from trial to trial.
 Example: Remembering the name of the
students according to their faces is Free call
learning.
 8) Mneumonic metods:
 Mneumonic come from Greek word for
“memory”.
 It refers to a specific memory in human
technique.

 a) Memory pegs:
 The clues(signals) are called Pegs.
 The order of colour in a spectrum can be
remembered by associating each colour with
VIBGYOR then VIBGYOR is called as memory
peg.
 b) Loci Method:
 The word “loci” means places.
 The memory pegs of this system are parts of
your images of a scene.
 The scene can be a street, a building with a
room and a layout of a college campus.
 Example:
 Image a house with a number of rooms and
different furniture items in each room. Now
keeping that in your mind, you can compare
different houses in a building.
 Thus associating all the houses, you can decide
which one can be the best for you.
 C) Rhyming System:
 In this, the rhyming association is made and it is
used to memorize long list of information.
 Example:
Think of words that rhyme with the numbers-
One is bun
Two is shoe
Three is tree
Four is door
 Here you may develop rhyming association
with a series of numbers and use it to
memorize the long list of information
 This is also a way to improve memory.
 D) Stories:
 If there are many items and they are unrelated
with each other then we can correlate the items
and memorize it in the form of a small story.
 Making stories about the information to be
learnt encourages better encoding and retrieval.
E) Remembering names and faces:
 Make a mental image of a person( face) and
then relate him with his name so that way we
can remember names along with the faces.
 Example:
 Making the mental image of a person as tall,
fair, dark, intelligent, talkative and so on in our
mind helps us to remember the names
according to mental image created in our
mind.
 F) Chunking:
 It is also an effective way of learning
 A systematic way of encoding information.
 Example:
 a telephone number have 10 digits so it can
be chunked (broken) in 2 or 3 chunks
9825112345 is chunked as below:
 1) 98251-12345 (2 chunks)
 2) 9825-112-345 (3 chunks)
  Disorders that affect memory:
 Amnesia:
 It is a disorder that causes forgetting
 It may forget from long term or short term
memory

 Types:
 1)Psycological
 2) Biological
 1) Psycological:
 People may forget information about themselves
for short period of time.
 When person is having traumatic brain injury, they
also have such forgetting memory
 Sometimes in Multiple Personality Disorder, a
single person acts like identity of 3 or 4 person.
 So selected personality of a selected person is lost

 2) Biological Amnesia:
 In old people there is a disease called as
Alzeimers (60-65 yrs).
 Person short term memory is totally lost.
THANK YOU