UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF

ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT AU-1
Bachelor of Engineering (Computer Science & Engineering)
Basics of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
ELT- 112
Er. Akhil Nigam

Transducers DISCOVER . LEARN . EMPOWER

 TRANSDUCERS
Course Outcome
CO
Numb Title Level
er

Students will be able to establish the equations that characterize the

CO1 performance of an electric circuit as well as solving both single phase and Remember
three-phase AC circuits in sinusoidal steady state.

Students will be made aware about the electrical safety and implementation
CO2 Understand
of electric wiring.

Introducing students to the areas of rotating electric machines, with https://circuitglobe.com/types-of-

CO3 Understand
application of motors in particular, transducers and electric batteries. transducer.html

Comprehension of different applications of Op-amps in electronic circuits

CO4 Understand
and its interfacing with A/D-D/A converters..

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 TRANSDUCERS

A transducer is a device that converts one type of

energy to another. The conversion can be to/from
electrical, electro-mechanical, electromagnetic,
photonic, photovoltaic, or any other form of
energy. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/electronic_measu
ring_instruments/electronic_measuring_instrume
nts_transducers.htm

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCERS
• Ruggedness
• Linearity
• Repeatability
• Accuracy
• High stability and reliability
• Speed of response
• Sensitivity
• Small size

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 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF TRANSDUCER
• Ruggedness. It should be capable of withstanding overload and some safety arrangement should be provided for overload protection.
• Linearity. Its input-output characteristics should be linear and it should produce these characteristics in symmetrical way.
• Repeatability. It should reproduce same output signal when the same input signal is applied again and again under fixed environmental
conditions e.g. temperature, pressure, humidity etc.
• High Output Signal Quality. The quality of output signal should be good i.e. the ratio of the signal to the noise should be high and the
amplitude of the output signal should be enough.
• High Reliability and Stability. It should give minimum error in measurement for temperature variations, vibrations and other various
changes in surroundings.
• Good Dynamic Response. Its output should be faithful to input when taken as a function of time. The effect is analyzed as the frequency
response.
• No Hysteretic. It should not give any hysteretic during measurement while input signal is varied from its low value to high value and vice-
versa.
• Residual Deformation. There should be no deformation on removal of local after long period of application

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 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDICER
There are different types of transducers such as follows:
1. Primary and secondary
2. Active and passive
3. Analog and digital
4. Transducer and inverse transducer

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 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCER
• Primary transducer: When the input signal is directly sensed by transducer and the physical phenomenon is converted into electrical
form directly then such a transducer is called primary transducer.
Examples: Bourdon tube
• Secondary transducer: When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor then its output being of some other form than the
input signal given as input to transducer for conversion into electrical form then such a transducer is called secondary transducer.
Examples: LVDT

• Active transducer: No extra power is required to produce I/p. They are Self generating. Draws power from input applied.
Examples: Piezoelectric
• Passive transducer: These transducer require external source of energy.
Examples: resistive, inductive and capacitive transducer

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 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCER
•Analog transducer: These transducer use analog signals to convert input quantity to output quantity.
Example: Strain gauge, thermocouple while
Digital transducer: These transducers use digital signals to convert input quantity into form of pulses.
Examples: Converters.
Transducer: A transducer is a device which converts non electrical quantity into electrical quantity.
Examples: Bourden tube.
Inverse transducer: An inverse transducer is a device which converts electrical quantity into non electrical quantity.
Examples: Piezo-electric.

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 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTAIL TRANSDUCER
Construction:
• The linear variable differential transformer has three solenoid coils placed end-to-end around a tube.
• The center coil is the primary, and the two outer coils are the top and bottom secondary's.
• A cylindrical ferromagnetic core, attached to the object whose position is to be measured, slides along the axis of the tube.
• An alternating current drives the primary and causes a voltage to be induced in each secondary proportional to the length of the core
linking to the secondary.
• As the core moves, the primary's linkage to the two secondary coils changes and causes the induced voltages to change. The coils are
connected so that the output voltage is the difference (hence "differential") between the top secondary voltage and the bottom
secondary voltage.

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 WORKING OF LVDT

https://circuitglobe.com/linear-variable- http://articles-publisher.com/lvdt-circuit-
differential-transformer-lvdt.html diagram

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 WORKING OF LVDT
• When the core is in its central position, equidistant between the two secondary, equal voltages are induced in the two secondary coils,
but the two signals cancel, so the output voltage is theoretically zero.
• When the core is displaced toward the top, the voltage in the top secondary coil increases as the voltage in the bottom decreases. The
resulting output voltage increases from zero. This voltage is in phase with the primary voltage.
• When the core moves in the other direction, the output voltage also increases from zero, but its phase is opposite to that of the
primary. The phase of the output voltage determines the direction of the displacement and amplitude indicates the amount of
displacement. A synchronous detector can determine a signed output voltage that relates to the displacement.

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 WORKING OF LVDT

https://www.electrical4u.com/linear-variable-
differential-transformer/

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 ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF LVDT
Advantage:
•Wide range of displacement from µm to cm.
•Frictionless and electrical isolation.
•High output.
•High sensitivity [sensitivity is expressed in mV (output voltage)/ mm (input core displacement)].
•Has almost linear characteristics.
•Consumes very less power.

Disadvantage:
•Sensitive to stray magnetic fields.
•Affected by vibrations.
•Dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of core and electrically by frequency of excitation voltage.

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 SLIDING CONTACT DEVICES
• There is a long conductor whose effective length is variable.
• One end of the conductor is fixed, while the position of the other end is decided by the slider or the brush that can move along the whole
length of the conductor along with the body whose displacement is to be measured.
• When the body moves the slider also moves along the conductor so its effective length changes, due to which it resistance also changes.
• These devices can be used to measured linear as well as angular displacement

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CONSTRUCTION OF ROTARY AND SLIDER TYPE
• The unit consists basically of a ‘track’ having a fixed resistance and a variable contact which can be moved along and make continuous
contact with the track.
• If the track resistance is proportional to the length along the track (i.e. linear track), the output voltage will be proportional to the
movement of the variable contact and the unit is suitable for use as a position transducer.
• The track may comprise a film of carbon formed on a substrate or may be a length of resistance wire wound on an insulator former.

https://slideplayer.com/slide/3419601/

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 POTENTIOMETER
• The Potential divider is the most obvious application. In its simplest form it is two resistors in series with an input voltage Vs across the
ends.
• If only two terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat.
• Potentiometers were formerly used to control picture brightness, contrast, and color response in Television sets.
• Low-power potentiometers, both linear and rotary, are used to control audio equipment, changing loudness, frequency attenuation and
other characteristics of audio signals.

https://www.elprocus.com/potentiometer-construction-
working-and-applications/

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 STRAIN GAUGE
 If a strip of conductive metal is placed under compressive force (without buckling), it will broaden and shorten.
 If these stresses are kept within the elastic limit of the metal strip (so that the strip does not permanently deform), the strip can
be used as a measuring element for physical force, the amount of applied force inferred from measuring its resistance.
 This is the principle of a Strain Gauge.

http://www.circuitstoday.com/strain-gauge

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 GAUGE FACTOR
The gauge factor is defined as:

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 HALF BRIDGE STRAIN GAUGE CIRCUIT
Unlike the Wheatstone bridge using a null-balance detector and a human operator to maintain a state of balance, a strain gauge bridge
circuit indicates measured strain by the degree of imbalance, and uses a precision voltmeter in the center of the bridge to provide an
accurate measurement of that imbalance:

https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-
current/chpt-9/strain-gauges/

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 WORKING OF STRAIN GAUGE
With no force applied to the test specimen, both strain gauges have equal resistance and the bridge circuit is balanced. However, when a
downward force is applied to the free end of the specimen, it will bend downward, stretching gauge #1 and compressing gauge #2 at the
same time:

http://www.sensorland.com/HowPage002.html

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 TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGE
Based on principle of working :
• Mechanical
• Electrical
• Piezoelectric

Based on mounting :
• Bonded strain gauge
• Unbonded strain gauge

Based on construction :
• Foil strain gauge
• Semiconductor strain gauge
• Photoelectric Strain gauge

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 ELECTRIC STRAIN GAUGE
• When an electrical wire is stretched within the limits of its elasticity such that it does not break or permanently deform, it will become
narrower and longer, changes that increase its electrical resistance end-to-end.
• Strain can be inferred by measuring change in resistance.

https://www.slideshare.net/mac899/strain-gauge-23842407

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 OTHER STRAIN GUAGE
A bonded strain-gauge element, consisting of a metallic
wire, etched foil, vacuum-deposited film, or
semiconductor bar, is cemented to the strained surface.

https://www.slideshare.net/
mac899/strain-gauge-
23842407
The unbonded strain gauge consists of a wire stretched
between two points in an insulating medium such as air.
One end of the wire is fixed and the other end is attached
to a movable element.
http://instrumentationandco
ntrollers.blogspot.com/2010
/11/unbonded-strain-
gauges.html

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ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF STRAIN GAUGE
Advantage:
• There is no moving part.
• It is small and inexpensive.
Disadvantage:
• It is non-linear.
• It needs to be calibrated.
Applications:
• Residual stress
• Vibration measurement
• Torque measurement
• Bending and deflection measurement
• Compression and tension measurement
• Strain measurement

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 THERMISTOR
• Thermistor work on the principle that resistance of some materials changes with the change in their temperature.
• When the temperature of the material changes, its resistance changes and it can be measured easily and calibrated against the
input quantity.
• The commonly used thermistors are made up of the ceramic like semiconducting materials such as oxides of manganese, nickel
and cobalt.
• Thermistors can be used for the measurement of temperature, as electric power sensing devices and also as the controls for
various processes.
• The most common type of thermistor that we use has a
resistance that falls as the temperature rises.
• It is referred to as a negative temperature coefficient device(NTC).

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 THERMISTOR
The thermistor resistance-temperature relationship can be approximated by,

https://www.kitronik.co.uk/blog/how-a-thermistor-works/

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 APPLICATIONS OF THERMISTOR
• Measurement of temperature
• Measurement of Difference of two temperatures
• Control of temperature
• Temperature compensation
• Thermal conductivity measurement.
• Measurement of Gas Composition
• Measurement of Flow
• Current-limiting devices for circuit protection as replacement for fuse (PTC).

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 HALL EFFECT TRANSDUCER
A Hall effect sensor is a device that is used to measure the magnitude of a magnetic field. Its output voltage is directly proportional to the
magnetic field strength through it. Hall effect sensors are used for proximity sensing, positioning, speed detection, and current sensing
applications.

https://circuitglobe.com/hall-effect-transducer.html

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 HALL EFFECT DEVICES
Hall effect devices can be used to:

1. Measure the velocity of charged particles in a magnetic field.

2. Measure the proximity of magnetic materials.

3. Detect the pulses of magnetism exp. Tachometer.

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 WORKING OF HALL SENSOR

Presence of magnetic field deflects electrons flowing through

conductive material

As electrons move to one end of conductive material:

Potential is developed in direction perpendicular to gross
current flow
Potential indicates strength of magnetic field

https://www.electronics-
tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/hall-effect.html

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 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
• The piezoelectric transducers work on the principle of piezoelectric effect. When mechanical stress or forces are applied to some
materials along certain planes, they produce electric voltage. This electric voltage can be measured easily by the voltage measuring
instruments, which can be used to measure the stress or force.
• Detect motion (high and low frequency)
• Cheap, reliable but has a very limited range of motion

https://circuitglobe.com/piezo-electric-transducer.html

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 PHOTOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
• A photoelectric transducer converts a light beam into a usable electric signal. As shown in the fig, light strikes the photo emissive
cathode and releases electrons, which are attracted towards the anode, thereby producing an electric current in the circuit.
• The cathode & the anode are enclosed in a glass or quartz envelope, which is either evacuated or filled with an inert gas.
• The photo electric sensitivity is given by; I=s*f where I=Photoelectric current, s=sensitivity, f= illumination of the cathode.
• The response of the photoelectric tube to different wavelengths is influenced by
• (i) The transmission characteristics of the glass tube envelope and
• (ii) Photo emissive characteristics of the cathode material.

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PHOTOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER

https://circuitglobe.com/photoelectric-transducer.html

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 THERMOCOUPLE
 The thermocouples work on the principle of Seebeck effect, Peltier effect and Thomson effect.
 As per the Seebeck effect, when two dissimilar elements are joined at their ends the electromotive force exists at their junction.
 As per Peltier effect, the amount of electromotive force generated depends on the temperature of the junction
 While, the Thomson effect says that the amount of voltage generated depends on the temperature gradient along the
conductors in the circuit.
 The voltage output from the thermocouple changes as its temperature changes or the temperature of the body in whose contact
it is changes.
 The voltage output is calibrated against the temperature of the body that can be measured easily.
 Thermocouple is a very popular device used for measurement of temperature.

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 THERMOCOUPLE

https://www.eletimes.com/thermocouple-signal-
conditioning-challenges-solutions

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 TRIAXIAL SENSORS
• Accelerometer is used to measure acceleration. Basically the sensors measures some electrical quantity like capacitance, current or
voltage based on the acceleration it senses . The electrical quantity is then converted to its equivalent acceleration reading. Now a days
any smart phone contains accelerometer.
• Gyroscopes measures angular velocity. Here also the sensors measure some change in capacitance proportional to the angular velocity
the sensor is experiencing.
• Magnetometer measures the heading based on earths magnetic field. But one has take care of the fact that there is no magnetic
substances near by. Otherwise the reading will be seriously flawed.
• Accelerometer and Gyroscope Applications
• Accelerometers have been used for a long time in automobiles for detecting car crashes and for triggering airbags at just the right
moment. They have many applications in mobile devices like switching between portrait and landscape modes, tap gestures to change to
the next song, tapping through clothing when the device is in a pocket, or anti-blur capturing and optical image stabilization.

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 APPLICATIONS OF THERMOCOUPLE
• Steel Industry
• Heating Appliance Safety
• Power Production : Thermoelectric Generation
• Thermoelectric Cooling
• Diesel Engines
• Gas Turbine Exhaust Temperature Measurement

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 Assessment Pattern
S. No. ELEMENTS MARKS
1 MST-1 36
2 MST-2 36
3 ASSIGNMENT (1+2+3) 12
4 SURPRISE TEST 09
5 TUTORIAL TEST 09
6 QUIZ 12

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 REFERENCES
• https://www.tutorialspoint.com/electronic_measuring_instruments/electronic_measuring_instruments_transducers.htm
• https://circuitglobe.com/linear-variable-differential-transformer-lvdt.html
• http://articles-publisher.com/lvdt-circuit-diagram
• https://www.electrical4u.com/linear-variable-differential-transformer/
• https://www.elprocus.com/potentiometer-construction-working-and-applications/
• https://slideplayer.com/slide/3419601/
• http://www.circuitstoday.com/strain-gauge
• https://www.kitronik.co.uk/blog/how-a-thermistor-works/
• https://www.eletimes.com/thermocouple-signal-conditioning-challenges-solutions

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 THANK YOU

For queries
Email: manjeet.e7825@cumail.in