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• Leadership Foundations
– Managers versus Leaders
– Trait Theories
– Behavioral Theories
– Cross Cultural Implications
• Situational Contingency Leadership
– Fiedler’s Leadership Contingency Theory
– House’s path-Goal Theory of Leadership
– Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
– Graen’s Leader-member exchange Theory
– Substitutes for Leadership Theory
• Implicit Leadership
– Leadership as Attribution
– Leadership Prototypes
• Inspirational Leadership Perspectives
– Charismatic Leadership
– Transformational and Transactional Leadership
– Charismatic and Transformational Leadership Issues.
 A. Leadership Foundation: A
Summary
1. Managers versus Leaders

• Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand

and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and
the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to
accomplish shared objectives.

• The role of management is to promote stability or to enable

the organization to run smoothly, whereas the role of
leadership is to promote adaptive or useful changes.
• Persons in managerial positions could be involved with both
management and leadership activities, or they could
emphasize one activity at the expense of the others. Both
management and leadership are needed.

• Leadership appears in two form

– Formal leadership : which is exerted by persons appointed to or
elected to positions of formal authority in organizational.
– Informal leadership : which is exerted by persons who become
influential because they have special skills that meet the
resource needs of others.
2. Trait Theories
• Trait perspective assume that traits play a central role in
differentiating between leaders and non-leaders or in predicting
leader or organizational outcomes.

• Traits with positive implications for successful leadership are as

follow:-
Energy and adjustment or stress tolerance : Physical vitality and emotional resilience

Prosocial power motivation : A high need for power exercised primarily

for the benefit of others

Achievement orientation : Need for achievement, desire to excel,

drive to success, willingness to assume
responsibility, concern for task objectives

Emotional maturity : Well-adjusted, does not suffer from severe

psychological disorders
Self-confidence : General confidence in self and in the
ability to perform the job of a leader

Integrity : Behavior consistent with espoused

values; honest, ethical, trustworthy

Perseverance or tenacity : Ability to overcome obstacles; strength

of will

Cognitive ability, intelligence, social : Ability to gather, ingrate, and interpret

intelligence information; intelligence, understanding
of social setting

Task-relevant knowledge : Knowledge about the company, industry,

and technical aspects

Flexibility : Ability to respond appropriately to

change in the setting
3. Behavioral Theories

• The behavioral perspective assumes that leadership is central

to performance and other outcomes.
• Two classic research programs-at the University of Michigan
and the Ohio State University- provide useful insights into
leadership behaviors.
• Michigan Studies
– In the late 1940s, researchers at the University of Michigan
introduced a research program on leadership behavior.
– The researchers derived two basic forms of leader behavior:
employee centered and production centered. Employee-
centered supervisors are those who place strong emphasis on
their subordinates welfare.
– In contrast, production-centered supervisors are more
concerned with getting the work done.
– In general, employee-centered supervisors were found to have
more productive workgroups than did the production-centered
supervisors.
– Sometimes, the more general term human-relation oriented and
oriented are used to describe these alternative leader behavior.
• Ohio State Studies
– A leader high in consideration is sensitive to people’s feelings
and tries to make things pleasant for the followers.
– A leader high in initiating structure is concerned with spelling
out the task requirements and clarifying other aspects of the
work agenda.

• The Leadership Grid

– Robert Blake and Jane Mouton have develop the leadership grid
approach based on extensions of the Ohio State dimensions.
– Leadership grid results are plotted on a nine-position grid that
places concern for production on the horizontal axis and
concern for people on the vertical axis.
4. Cross-Cultural Implications

• It is important to consider how well the kinds of behavioral

dimensions discussed earlier transfer internationally. Some
work in the United Stated, Britain, Hong Kong, and Japan
shows that the behavior must be carried out in different
ways in alternative cultures.

• British leaders are seen as considerate if they show

subordinates how to use equipment, whereas in Japan the
highly considerate leader helps subordinates with personal
problems.
B. Situational Contingency Leadership
• Another development in leadership thinking has
recognized, however, that leader traits and behaviors
can act in conjunction with situational contingencies.
1. Fiedler’s Leadership Contingency Theory

• Situational control is the extent to which leaders can

determine what their groups are going to do and what the
outcomes of their actions and decision are going to be.

• The least preferred co-worker (LPC) scale is a measure of a

person’s leadership style based on a description of the person
with whom respondents have been able to work least well.

• Fred Fiedler’s work began the situational contingency era in t

emid-1960s. His theory holds that group effectiveness on an
appropriate match between a leader’s style (essentially a trait
measure) and the demands of the situation.
• Fiedler uses an instrument called the least preferred co-
worker (LPC) scale to measure a person’s leadership style.
 Leader-member relations (good/poor) – membership
support for the leader.
 Task structure (high/low) –spelling out the leader’s task
goals, procedures, and guidelines in the group.
 Position power (strong/weak) – the leader’s task expertise
and reward or punishment authority.
*Fiedler’s three situati0nal control variables.

* 2. House path goal theory (as discussed before)

3. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational leadership
Theory

• Situational leadership model focuses on the situational

contingency of maturity or “readiness” of followers.

• Situational contingency approaches, the situational

leadership model developed by Paul Hersey and Kenneth
Blanchard posits that there is no single best way to lead.
• Hersey and Blanchard focus on the situational contingency of
maturity, or “readiness,” of followers, in particular.

• Readiness is the extent to which people have the ability and

willingness to accomplish a specific task.
– A “telling” style (S1) is best for low follower readiness (R1)
– A “selling” style (S2) is best for low-to-moderate follower
readiness (R2)
– A “participating” style (S3) is best for moderate-to-high follower
readiness (R3)
– A “delegating” style (S4) is best for high readiness (R4)
4. Graen’s Leader-Member Exchange Theory

• Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory emphasize the

quality of the working relationship between leaders and
followers.

• An LMX scale assesses the degree to which leaders and

followers have mutual respect for one another’s
capabilities, feel a deepening sense of mutual trust, and
have a strong sense of obligation to one another, which
followers will be a part of the leader’s “in-group” or
“out-group”.
 – In-group followers tend to function as assistants,
lieutenants, or advisers and to have higher-quality
personalized exchanged with the leader than do out-
group followers.
– The out-group followers tend to emphasize more
formalized job requirements, and relative low level of
mutual influence exist between leaders and out-group
followers.
• LMX is associated with increased follower satisfaction and
productivity, decrease turnover, increased salaries, and
faster promotion rates.
5. Substitutes for Leadership Theory

• Substitutes for leadership make a leader’s influence either

unnecessary or redundant in that they replace a leader’s
influence.

• It will be unnecessary and perhaps not even possible for a

leader to provide the kind of task-oriented directed already
available from an experienced, talented, and well-trained
subordinate.

• In contrast, neutralizers prevent a leader from behaving in a

certain way or nullify the effects of a leader's action.

• Little formal authority or is physically separated, for example,

his or her leadership may be nullified even tough task
supportiveness may still be needed.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUALS IMPACT ON LEADERSHIP

Experience, ability, training Substitutes for task-oriented leadership

Professional orientation Substitutes for task-oriented and supportive

leadership

Indifference towards organizational Neutralizes task-oriented and supportive

rewards leadership

CHARACTERISTICS OF JOB

Highly structured/routine Substitutes for task-oriented leadership

Intrinsically satisfying Substitutes for supportive leadership

CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZATION

Cohesive Substitutes for task-oriented and supportive

leadership
Low leader position power Neutralizes task-oriented and supportive
leadership
Leader physically separated Neutralizes task-oriented and supportive
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 C. Implicit Leadership
• To move from the symbolic leadership extension of leadership
substitutes to implicit leadership.

• In the mid 1970’s a couple of researchers argued that

“leadership factors are in the mind of the respondent. It
remains to be established whether or not they are more than
that.” this general notion is described here in two forms.

• The first one is labeled leadership as attribution and the

second is termed leadership prototypes.

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1. Leadership as Attribution
• If leader attribute an employee’s poor performance to lack
of effort, they may issue a reprimand, whereas if they
attributes the poor performance to an external factor, such
as work overload, they will probably try to fix the problem.

• Inference-based emphasizes leadership effectiveness as

inferred by followers based on perceived group or
organization performance outcomes.

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2. Leadership Prototypes

• Leadership prototypes are the second form of leadership

considered to be in the mind of the beholder. Here, research
argues that people have a mental image of the
characteristics that make a “good” leader or that a “real”
leader would possess to be considered effective in a given
situation.

• Leadership prototypes are an alternatives way to the

inference-based approach to assess leadership and are
termed recognition based (you know one when you see his
or her characteristics profile).

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• Recognition-based is leadership effectiveness based on how
well a person fits characteristics of a good or effective leader

• Small-scale study contrasted typical business leader

prototypes between Japan an the United States.
– Japan: responsible, educated, trustworthy, intelligent,
disciplined
– United States: determined, goal oriented, verbally skilled,
industrious, persistent.

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D. Inspirational Leadership Perspective

1. Charismatic Leadership.
– Are those leaders who, by force of their personal abilities, are capable
of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers.

2. Transformational and Transactional Leadership.

– Transactional leadership involves leader-followers exchanges
necessary for achieving routine performance agreed upon between
leaders and followers.

– Transformational leadership occurs when leaders broaden and

elevate followers’ interest and stir followers to look beyond their own
interest to the good of others.

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3. Charismatic and Transformational Leadership
issues.

– Issues 1: can people be trained in

charismatic/transformational leadership?

– Issues 2: is charismatic/transformational leadership always

good?

– Sila bincangkan dalam kumpulan.

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 Study Guide
1. What are leadership foundations?

• Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree

about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of
facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared
objectives
• Leadership and management differ in that management is designed to
promote stability or to make the organization run smoothly, whereas the
role of leadership is to promote adaptive change.
• Traits or great-person approaches argue that leader traits have a major
impact on differentiating between leaders and nonreaders or predicting
leadership outcomes.
• Traits are considered relatively innate and hard to change.
• Similar to trait approaches, behavioral theories argue that leader behavior
have a major impact on outcomes.
• Leader behavior theories are especially suitable for leadership training.

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2. What are situational contingency approaches to leadership?

• Leader situational contingency approaches argue that leadership, in

combination with various situational contingency variables, can have a
major impact on outcomes.
• The effect of traits are enhanced to the extent of their relevance to the
situational contingency faced by the leader.
• Strong or weak situational contingencies influence the impact of
leadership traits.
• Fiedler’s contingencies theory, House’s path-goal theory, Hersey and
Blanchard’s situational leadership theory, Graen’s leader-member
exchange theory, and Kerr and Jermier’s substitutes for leadership theory
are particularly important specific situational contingency approaches.
• Sometimes, as in the case of the substitutes for leadership approach, the
role of situational contingencies replaces that of leadership, so that
leadership has little or no impact in itself.

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3. What are implicit leadership approaches to leadership?

• Attribution theory extends traditional leadership approaches by

recognizing that substantive effects cannot always be objectively
identified and measured
• Leaders form attribution about why their employees perform well or
poorly and respond accordingly as do employees concerning leaders.
• Leaders and followers often infer that there is good leadership when their
group performs well. This is an inferential perspective.
• Leaders and followers often have in mind a good leader prototype;
compare the leader against such a prototype; an conclude that the closer
the fit, the better the leadership. This is a representational perspective.
• Some contend that leadership makes no real difference and is largely
symbolic; others, following the “romance of leadership” notion, embrace
this symbolic emphasis and attribute almost magical qualities to
leadership.

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4. What are inspirational perspective to leadership?

• Charismatic and transformational leadership helps move followers to

achieve goals that transcend their own self-interests and help transform
the organization.
• Particularly important among such approaches are Bass’s transformational
theory and House’s and Conger and Kanungo’s charismatic perspectives.
• Transformational approaches are broader than charismatic ones and
sometimes include charisma as one of their dimensions.
• Transformational/charismatic leadership, in general, are important
because they go beyond traditional leadership in facilitating change in the
increasingly fast-moving workplace.
• In terms of charismatic/transformational leadership training, Bass and his
colleagues, Conger and Kanungo, and Kaouzos and Posner, among others,
have developed such training programs.
• Charismatic/transformational leadership are not always good, as shown by
the example of Adolf Hitler.
• Charismatic/transformational leadership are not always helpful since even
if good, they may divert energy away from other kinds of leadership.
• Charismatic/transformational leadership are important throughout the
organization, as well as the top.

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