Energy methods : Axial Loading

Rod subjected to slowly varying axial load

F F

F()
x 
Strain Energy U  x    Fd 
o d

For a uniform rod of area of cross section A and length L

F d  
x x x
U
u     d      d
V oA L o L o

x 
In general, Strain Energy Density dU
u    x d x
dV o

Within proportional limit  x  E x

x x
1 1  x2
 u    x d  x   E x d  x  E x 
2

o o
2 2 E
 Energy methods : Axial Loading

Strain energy of an axially loaded rod

Strain Energy Density Strain Energy

1  x2  x2
u U   udV   dV
2 E 2E
For an axially loaded rod

 P  x 
2
 2
1   P2
U   x dV   
2E  x  
 dV U  dV
2E  A x  
 2 EA 2

x
P2
x
P2 P2
2 
U  2
dV   Adx  U  dx
2 EA 2 EA
0
0
2EA

For a rod of uniform cross

section and composition P2 L
subjected to a constant U
axial load 2 EA
 Castigliano’s first theorem
Strain Energy of a structure loaded with N forces:
Energy is stored through overall contribution of all the deflections

U  U  1, 2 ,...,  N 
Potential Energy: N
Each applied load does work due to V   Qi  i
deflection at the point of its application. i 1

Why is this negative?

Consider a spring on which a force F is acting. Assume that

the spring contracts or expands by an amount x. The spring
stores energy 1/2kx2. The force moves by an amount x. From
the springs point of view it needs to make the force move,
thereby losing something, while the energy from its
contraction or expansion remains with it.

x
A static structure can be
considered as an assembly
1/2kx2 -Px of many such springs

Note : This theorem is rarely used in mechanics of solids or

strength of materials courses and in more relevant in courses on
structural analysis. However it is discussed here so that students
may know what the first is about, when they use the more popular
second theorem.
 Castigliano’s first theorem
Total Energy is a function of the s,
(which are mutually independent)

 U V
 U1  1 ,...,  N   U 2  1 ,...,  N   ...  U N  1 ,...,  N 
  Q11    Q2 2   ...   QN  N 
N N
 U i  1 ,...,  N    Qi i
i 1 i 1

Take the differential on both sides

U U U
  1   2  ...   N
1  2  N
Q11  Q2 2  ...  QN  N
U U
   1  Q11   2  Q2 2 
1  2
U
...   N  QN  N
 N
 U
N

      Qi   i
i 1   i 
 Castigliano’s first theorem

 0
At minimum  ,
 k
derivative of  with  U   i
 N
respect to any of the     Qi  0
independent  k i 1   i   k
variables is zero
N
 U 
      Qi   i  0
i 1   i 

U
 Q1  0
1
U
 Q2  0
Since the s are
 2
mutually independent

U
 QN  0
 N
U
 Qi  0 i  1, 2,..., N
 i
 Castigliano’s first theorem
Since the s are mutually independent

 U V
 U1  1 ,...,  N   U 2  1 ,...,  N   ...  U N  1 ,...,  N 
  Q11    Q2 2   ...   QN  N 
N N
 U i  1 ,...,  N    Qi i
i 1 i 1

Take the differential on both sides

U U U
  1   2  ...   N
1  2  N
Q11  Q2 2  ...  QN  N
U U
   1  Q11   2  Q2 2 
1  2
U
...   N  QN  N
 N
 U
N

      Qi   i
i 1   i 
 Maxwell's Reciprocal theorem

Deflection produced at a point C1 by a load P1 x11  11P1

Deflection produced at a point C2 by a load P1 x21   21P1

Deflection produced at a point C1 by a load P2 x12  12 P2

Deflection produced at a point C2 by a load P2 x22   22 P2

ij is called the influence coefficient

 Maxwell's Reciprocal theorem
Apply only load P1 at point C1 first. P1 is slowly
increased from 0 to its final value to ensure
equilibrium at every stage. This is stated as - P1 is P1
applied quasistatically. The displacement produced
is x11. Energy stored in the system is therefore
x11
average force times the displacement. The figure
shows how P1 increases with x.

1 1 1 2
U  P1 x11  P1 11P1   P1 11
2 2 2
Next apply load P2 at point C2 quasistatically. P1 remains at its
final value throughout this process and undergoes a
displacement caused by the effect of P2 at point C1 which is x12.
The figure shows how P1 and P2 vary during this process.

P2 P1

x22 x11 x12

1 1
U  P2 x22  Px
1 12  P2  22 P2   P1 12 P2 
2 2
1 2
 U  P2  22  PP 1 212
2
1 2 1 2
Total energy U  P1 11  P2  22  PP
1 212
2 2
 Maxwell's Reciprocal theorem
Now apply only load P2 at point C2 first.
quasistatically. The displacement produced P2
is x22. Energy stored in the system is average
force times the displacement. x22

1 1 1 2
U  P2 x22  P2  22 P2   P2  22
2 2 2
Next apply load P1 at point C1 quasistatically . P2 remains at its
final value throughout this process and undergoes a displacement
caused by the effect of P1 at point C2 which is x21.

P1 P2

x11 x22 x21

1 1
U  P1 x11  P2 x21  P1 11P1   P2  21P1 
2 2
1
 U  P1211  P2 P1 21
2

1 2 1 2
Total energy U  P2  22  P1 11  P2 P1 21
2 2
 Maxwell's Reciprocal theorem

Energy stored by both methods must be equal at the end of the

process if done quasistatically ensuring equilibrium at every step.

1 2 1 2
 P1 11  P2  22  PP
1 212
2 2
1 2 1 2
 P2  22  P1 11  P2 P1 21
2 2
1 212  P2 P1 21
 PP
 12   21

Maxwell’s theorem  21  12

Deflection produced at a point C1 by a unit

load applied at C2 is equal to the deflection
produced at C2 by a unit load applied at C1.
 Castigliano’s second theorem

For a structure subjected to n loads

P1, P2,.. Pn, x j   jk Pk
the deflection at point j, k
measured along the line of action of Pj is

1 1
Total Strain Energy U 
2 i
x P
k k  
2 i k
ik Pi Pk

U 1 1
  jk Pk   ij Pi
Minimizing
Pj 2 k 2 i
Strain Energy  ij   ji
U
   jk Pk  x j
Pj k

U
Castigliano’s second theorem i 
Pi
Axial loading : Castigliano’s second theorem

n
Fi Li
U 
i 1 2 Ai Ei

U n
Fi Li Fi
j  
Fj i 1 2 Ai Ei Fj

For a point where there is no load, apply a

dummy load, derive the expressions and then
set the dummy load to zero.

For statically indeterminate systems, the

indeterminate reactions are considered as applied
loads and the deflections obtained at the point of
applications of these reactions are set to zero or
whatever value is required by the constraints.