CHAPTER TWO

TRADITIONAL MACHININGPROCESSES

MACHINING - INTRODUCTION
-PURPOSE,
- PRINCIPLE, and
1 - DEFINITION
 CHAPTER- TWO
TRADATIONAL MACHINING
PROCESS
INTRODUCTION
 Machining is the removal of the unwanted material
(machining allowance) from the work piece (WP), so as to
obtain a finished product of the desired size, shape, and
surface quality.
 The practice of removal of machining allowance through
cutting techniques was first adopted using simple handheld
tools made from bone, stick, or stone, which were replaced
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by bronze or iron tools
 CONTI….
 . Water, steam, and later electricity were used to drive such
tools in power-driven metal cutting machines (machine
tools).
 Nontraditional machining techniques offered alternative
methods for machining parts of complex shapes in hard,
stronger, and tougher materials that are difficult to cut by
traditional methods.

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.

FIGURE 3.1 SHOWS THE GENERAL CLASSIFICATION

OF MACHINING METHODS BASED ON THE MATERIAL 4
REMOVAL MECHANISM.
CONTI……
 Key:
 AJM, abrasive jet machining;

 WJM, water jet machining;

 USM, ultrasonic machining;

 AFM, abrasive flow machining;

 MAF, magnetic abrasive finishing;

 CHM, chemical machining;

 ECM, electrochemical machining;

 EDM, electro discharge machining;

 LBM, laser beam machining;

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 PBM, plasma beam machining.
 INTRODUCTION
 The components or parts manufactured by near-
net or net- shape methods such as casting, forming
and shaping processes, often require further
operations before a product is ready for use.
 Machining can be considered as a system
consisting of a work piece, the cutting tool and the
machine.
 Inorder to understand the machining operations,
the knowledge regarding the interaction among
these elements needs to be strengthened 6
NECESSITY OF MACHINING
 Closer dimensional accuracy
example: to manufacture sharp edge required a
closer dimensional accuracy
 External and internal geometric features
example: thread forming
 Finishing operations for final dimensions and
surface finish
example: Casting operation may poor surface finish
b/c of solidification problem
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Forging operation may be the die worn out
 LIMITATION OF MACHINING
 Wastage of material in the form of chips, require
more energy, capital and labor than forming and
shaping operations
 Removing a volume of material may take longer
than shaping other processes
 Themachining process may have adverse effect on
surface finish, if not performed properly.

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 PURPOSE OF MACHINING
 Most of the engineering components such as gears,
bearings, clutches, tools, screws and nuts etc. need
dimensional and form accuracy and good surface
finish for serving their purposes
 Machining to high accuracy and finish essentially
enables a product
 fulfill its functional requirements
 improve its performance
 prolong its service 9
PRINCIPLE OF MACHINING

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Principle of machining
 DEFINITION OF MACHINING

 Machining is an essential process of finishing by

which jobs of desired dimensions and surface
finish are produced by gradually removing the
excess material from the preformed blank in the
form of chips with the help of cutting tool(s)
moved past the work surface(s).

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MACHINING REQUIREMENTS

Power

Blank
Machining
Machine Product
Process
Fixture

Tools Environment

Correction Analysis
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Requirements for machining

MACHINE TOOL - DEFINITION

A machine tool is a non-portable, power operated

and reasonably valued device or system of devices
in which energy is expended to produce jobs of
desired size, shape and surface finish by removing
excess material from the preformed blanks in the
form of chips with the help of cutting tool(s) moved
past the work surface(s).

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(a) Working principle of Machine Tools
Machine Tools – produce geometrical surfaces :
• flat surfaces
• cylindrical surfaces
• contour surfaces
Major functional components of machine tool
• devices for holding job and tool
• drive(s) for providing power and motions
• kinematic system(s) to transmit motion and
power to the tool and job
• automation and control system 14

• structure / body – strong and rigid

 Machine tools produce geometrical surfaces
with the help of
Δ tool and work
Δ tool – work motions
Δ Generatrix (G) and Directrix (D)
Examples
i) Generation of flat surface

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Generation of flat surfaces by Generatrix and Directrix

ii. Generation of cylindrical surfaces

External surfaces

Generation of cylindrical surfaces (of revolution)

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TOOL – WORK MOTIONS

 To perform the operation, relative motion is required

between the tool and work.
 This relative motion is achieved in most machining
operations by means of a primary motion, called the
cutting speed, and a secondary motion, called the
feed.
 The shape of the tool and its penetration into the
work surface, combined with these motions,
produces the desired geometry of the resulting work
surface. 17
TOOL – WORK MOTIONS
 In some cases of machining, motion is given to the
work piece and tool remains stationary.

 In some other cases, the work piece is stationary and

the machine tool provides motion to the cutting tool.
 In other cases, motion is given both to tool as well as
the work piece.

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TOOL – WORK MOTIONS
 For machining flat or curved surfaces the machine tools
need relative tool work motions, that are categorized in
following two groups:
1. Formative motions
⎯ Cutting motion (CM)
⎯ Feed motion (FM)

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 TOOL – WORK MOTIONS
2. Auxiliary motions such as
⎯ Indexing motion e.g., in milling gear teeth
⎯ Additional feed motion e.g., radial feed in gear
shaping machines
⎯ Relieving motion e.g., machining flanks of
form milling cutters

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 UOG

CONFIGURATION OF
BASIC
MACHINE TOOLS
AND THEIR USE

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 CENTRE LATHES

A centre lathe is also called an engine lathe or simply

a lathe. It is one of the commonest and oldest machine
tools. It is also one of the most versatile ,manually
operated and widely used machines. Its main
function is production of cylindrical profiles.

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CONFIGURATION

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Schematic view of a center lathe

MAJOR …
 Machine bed: providing a rigid frame for the
machine tool, usually made of cast iron. It holds or
supports all other parts of the lathe. The top of the
machine bed is flat and is machined to form guide
ways on which the carriage slides along the length
of the lathe.

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 25
LATHE BED
MAJOR …
 Headstock: It is fixed at the extreme left hand of
the bed and contains shafts and gears immersed in
lubricating oil. The headstock contains the drive
unit to rotate the spindle, a chuck (either three jaw
or four jaw), is screwed on this spindle. The work
piece can be held in the jaws of the chuck. When
the spindle rotates, the chuck as well as the work
piece held also rotate about the longitudinal axis of
the spindle.
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27
 MAJOR …
 Tailstock: A tailstock is provided at the right hand
end of the bed. It can slide along the guide ways
provided on the bed and may be brought nearer to
the headstock, if so desired. It can then be clamped
or fixed on the bed in that position. The tailstock has
a spindle in the upper part of the tailstock, the axis of
which coincides with the axis of the headstock
spindle, both being at the same height above the bed.
This spindle can be moved forwards or backwards
by rotating a hand wheel. 28
29
 MAJOR …
 Carriage: The carriage can slide along the length of
the machine bed from the tailstock end to the head
stock end. This movement is controlled by manually
operating the hand traversing wheel. It can also be
imparted this traversing motion at different speeds
automatically by engaging into the feed rod or feed
shaft. The cross slide can also be moved either
manually through a smaller hand wheel or through
an automatic device. The cutting tool is clamped in
the tool post which is mounted on top of the
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compound rest.
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 Lathe Operations
Turning: produce straight, conical, curved, or
grooved work pieces
Facing: To produce a flat surface at the end of the
part or for making face grooves.
Boring: To enlarge a hole or cylindrical cavity made
by a previous process or to produce circular
internal grooves.
Drilling: To produce a hole by fixing a drill in the
tailstock
Threading: To produce external or internal threads
Knurling: To produce a regularly shaped roughness32
on cylindrical surfaces
Lathe Operations

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 SHAPING MACHINE
 Shaping machines are generally used for producing
flat surfaces, grooving, splitting etc. Because of poor
productivity and process capability these machine
tools are not widely used now-a-days for production.
 Thismachine capable of machining a horizontal,
vertical or inclined flat surface.
 Shaping machine employ single-point cutting tools
which are essentially similar to single-point cutting
tools used on lathe, reciprocates over the stationary
work piece. 34
Principal parts of a shaper

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36
 Principal…
 Base: It is a heavy structure of cast iron which
supports other parts of a shaper.
 Column: It is a box-like structure made up of cast
iron and mounted upon the base. It contains the
driving mechanism and is provided with two
machined guide ways on the top of it on which the
ram reciprocates.
 Ram: It is a reciprocating member which reciprocates
on the guide ways provided above the column. It
carries a tool-slide on its head and a mechanism for 37
adjusting the stroke length.
 Principal…
 Tool head: It is attached to the front portion of the ram
with the help of a nut and a bolt. It is used to hold the
tool rigidly, it also provides the vertical and angular
movements to the tool for cutting.
 Cross-rail:
It is attached to the front vertical portion of
the column. It helps in elevating the table over the
column in the upward direction, and the table can be
moved in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the
ram over this cross rail.
o Table: It is used for holding the work piece. It can be
adjusted horizontally and vertically with the help of 38
spindles.
 DRIVE MECHANISMS OF SHAPER

 Since useful work is done only during the forward

stroke of ram, It does not cut i.e., it is idle during the
return stroke of ram, the mechanism driving the ram
is so designed that the return stroke is completed in
much less time than the forward stroke.
 In order that while returning, a special device called
the “clapper box” is provided in the tool post to lifts
the tip of the tool,
 The slotted lever quick return mechanism is
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illustrated in Figs
DRIVE……

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 DRIVE……
 The crank AB (of adjustable length R ) rotates with a
uniform angular speed. The crank pin B is in the shape of
a die block which is free to slide inside the slot in the
slotted lever OBC .
 When the crank AB rotates clockwise from position AB1
to AB2, the ram moves forward from left to right and
when it rotates from position AB2 to AB1 the ram
returns back to its original position.
 Clearly the time taken to complete forward stroke is
proportional to angle α and the return stroke is completed
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in less time which is proportional to angle β.
 Operations
performed on a shaper can be easily
understood from Fig.

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 PLANNING MACHINE

 This machine tool also does the same operations like

shaping machine but the major differences are
 Planer is used to machine flat surfaces on work pieces,
which are too large and heavy to be accommodated on
a shaping machine table.
 The fundamental difference between a planer and
shaper is that in a planer, the tool remains stationary
and the work reciprocates whereas in the shaper, the
work remains stationary and the tool reciprocates.
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 PLANNING MACHINE
 A planer can handle much heavier cuts and more than one
tool post is provided on one machine so that machining
can be done quickly. Sometimes a horizontal surface and a
vertical surface are machined simultaneously and the
squareness of the surfaces is automatically ensured

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 PLANNING…
 Bed: The bed of a planer is a box like casting having
cross ribs. It provides the foundation for the machine
and supports the housing and all other moving parts.
The up-per part of the bed is provided with precision
Vee type guide ways on which the table slides.
 Table: The planer table is reciprocates along the ways
of the bed and supports the work. The top face of the
table is provided with T-slots and holes uniformly
spaced for fixing the work and work holding devices
over the table with the help of T-bolts, clamps etc. The
table may be driven by rack and gear, by rack and 45

double helical gear or by hydraulic system.

 PLANNING…
 Housing: The housings are rigid column-like castings
placed on each side of the bed. The front face of the
housings is accurately machined to provide precision
ways. The housings enclose the cross-rail elevating
screws, vertical and cross-feed screws for the tool heads,
counter balancing weights for the cross-rail etc.
 Cross-rail: The cross-rail is mounted on the precision
machined ways of the two housings. It may be raised or
lowered on the housings to accommodate work of
different heights on the table and to allow for the
adjustment of the tools. 46
 PLANNING…
 Tool heads: The tool heads are mounted on the cross-
rail or housings by means of a saddle which slides
along the rail or housing ways. The saddle may be
made to move transversely on the cross-rail to give
cross feed. Two tool heads are provided on the cross-
rail so that the two tools may remove the material from
the work simultaneously. In addition to these two-tool
heads, there are other two-tool heads which are
mounted on each housing

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 DRILLING
 Drilling is a process of producing round holes in a
solid material or enlarging existing holes with the use
of multi-tooth cutting tools called drills or drill bits.
Various cutting tools are available for drilling, but the
most common is the twist drill .

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 CUTTING CONDITIONS IN DRILLING
 The
twist drill is a cutting tool with two symmetrical
opposite cutting edges, each removing part of the
material in the form of chip.

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 DRILLING MACHINES
Drill press:
 There are various types of drill press, the most basic of
which is the upright drill.
 The upright drill stands on the floor and consists of a
table for holding the work part, a drilling head with
powered spindle for the drill bit, and a base and column
for support .
A similar drill press, but smaller, is the bench drill,
which is mounted on a table or bench rather than the
floor. 50
Drill press:

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 Radial drill:
 The radial drill is a large drill press designed to cut
holes in large parts. It has a radial arm along which
the drilling head can be moved and clamped. The
head therefore can be positioned along the arm at
locations that are a significant distance from the
column to accommodate large work. The radial arm
can also be swiveled about the column to drill parts
on either side of the worktable

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 Radial drill:

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OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON DRILLING

 Core drilling: Holes made in castings by use of cores,

are rough and require a special kind of drill, called core
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drill to clean up the holes.
 OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON DRILLING
 Step drilling: Is used to drill a stepped (multi-diameter)
hole in a solid material.
 Counter boring: Often a flat surface is needed around a
hole to provide a good seating area for washer and
nuts/head of a bolt. The counter boring tool, which
ensures that the counter bore is concentric with the hole.
 Counter sinking: is similar to counter boring, except
that the step is conical for flat head screws:
 Reaming: provides a better tolerance and surface finish
to an initially drilled hole. Reaming slightly increases
the hole diameter. The tool is called reamer ; 55
 MILLING
 Milling is a process of producing flat and complex
shapes with the use of multi-tooth cutting tool, which
is called a milling cutter and the cutting edges are
called teeth .
 The axis of rotation of the cutting tool is perpendicular
to the direction of feed, either parallel or perpendicular
to the machined surface.

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 MILLI NG MACHINES
 Milling machines must provide a rotating spindle for the

cutter and a table for fastening, positioning, and feeding

the work part. Various machine tool designs satisfy these
requirements. To begin with, milling machines can be
classified as horizontal or vertical.
 Horizontal milling: machine has a horizontal spindle,
and this design is well suited for performing peripheral
milling (e.g., slab milling, slotting, side and straddle
milling) on work parts.
 Verticalmilling: machine has a vertical spindle, and this
orientation is appropriate for face milling, end milling
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and surface contouring on relatively flat work parts.
  Two basic types of knee-and-column milling machine: (a)
horizontal and (b) vertical.

 Column that supports the spindle

 Knee that supports the worktable
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 Arbor is basically a shaft that holds the milling cutter and
is driven by the spindle.
TYPES OF MILLING OPERATIONS
 There are two basic types of milling operations
- Peripheral milling and Face milling.
Peripheral Milling: In peripheral milling, also called
plain milling, the axis of the tool is parallel to the
surface being machined, and the operation is
performed by cutting edges on the outside periphery of
the cutter.

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 Several types of peripheral milling are shown in Figure

Fig. Peripheral milling: (a) slab milling, (b) slotting, (c)

side milling, (d) straddle milling, and (e) form milling.60
 In peripheral milling, the direction of cutter rotation
distinguishes two forms of milling:.
 Up milling, also called conventional milling , the
direction of motion of the cutter teeth is opposite the feed
direction when the teeth cut into the work. It is milling
‘‘ against the feed.’’
 Down milling, also called climb milling , the direction of
cutter motion is the same as the feed direction when the
teeth cut the work. It is milling ‘‘ with the feed.’’

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Peripheral milling operation (a) up milling, and (b) down milling.

 Face Milling
Face milling: the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the
surface being milled, and machining is performed by
cutting edges on both the end and out side periphery of
the cutter.

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  Several types of face milling are shown in Figure

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Face milling: (a) conventional face milling, (b) partial face milling, (c) end
milling, (d) profile milling, (e) pocket milling, and (f) surface contouring.
 GRINDING
 Grinding is process of removing material by the
abrasive action of revolving wheel on the surface of a
work piece in order to bring it to the required shape
and size.
 The wheel used for performing the grinding operation
is known as grinding wheel.
A grinding wheel is made up of thousands of tiny
abrasive particles embedded in a matrix called the
‘bond’
 The grinding process provides high accuracy and
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good surface finish so they are used for finishing
operations.
 GRINDING OPERATIONS

 Grinding operations are carried out with a variety of

wheel-work part configurations. The basic type of
grinding are
 Surface grinding , and
 Cylindrical grinding

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 Surface grinding
 Surface grinding is an abrasive machining process in
which the grinding wheel removes material from the
plain flat surfaces of the work piece.

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 In surface grinding, the spindle position is either
horizontal or vertical , and the relative motion of the
workpiece is achieved either by reciprocating the
workpiece past the wheel or by rotating it. The
possible combinations of spindle orientations and
workpiece motions yield four types of surface
grinding processes illustrated in the figure:

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Cylindrical grinding
 In this operation, the external or internal cylindrical
surface of a workpiece are ground. In external cylindrical
grinding (also center-type grinding) the workpiece
rotates andreciprocates along its axis, although for large
and long workparts the grinding wheel reciprocates.

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 In internal cylindrical grinding , a small wheel grinds the
inside diameter of the part. The workpiece is held in a
rotating chuck in the headstock and the wheel rotates at
very high rotational speed.

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SPECIFICATION OF MACHINE TOOLS

The methods of specification of some basic

machine tools are as follows:
 CENTRE LATHE
 Maximum diameter and length of the jobs that can
be accommodated
 Power of the main drive (motor)
 Range of spindle speeds
 Range of feeds
 Space occupied by the machine
 SHAPING MACHINE

 Length, breadth and depth of the bed

 Maximum axial travel of the bed and vertical
travel of the bed / tool
 Maximum length of the stroke (of the ram /
tool)
 Range of number of strokes per minute
 Range of table feed
 Power of the main drive
 Space occupied by the machine
DRILLING MACHINE

 Maximum drill size (diameter) that can be used

 Size and taper of the hole in the spindle
 Range of spindle speeds
 Range of feeds
 Power of the main drive
 Range of the axial travel of the spindle / bed
 Floor space occupied by the machine
 MILLING MACHINE
 Type; ordinary or swiveling bed type
 Size of the work table
 Range of travels of the table in X-Y-Z directions
 Arbour size (diameter)
 Power of the main drive
 Range of spindle speed
 Floor space occupied.
BROAD CLASSIFICATION
OF MACHINE TOOLS
 Machine tools are broadly classified as follows:
 According to direction of major axis:
 Horizontal -center lathe, horizontal boring
machine etc.
 Vertical – vertical lathe, vertical axis milling
machine etc.
 Inclined – special (e.g. for transfer machines).
According to purpose of use:
 General
purpose – e.g. center lathes, milling
machines, drilling machines etc.
 Single purpose – e.g. facing lathe, roll turning
lathe etc.
 Special purpose – for mass production.
According to degree of automation:
 Non-automatic–e.g. center lathes, drilling
machines etc.
 Semi-automatic–capstan lathe, turret lathe,
hobbing machine etc.
 Automatic –e.g., single spindle automatic lathe,
Swiss type automatic lathe, CNC milling
machine etc.
According to size
 Heavy duty – e.g., heavy duty lathes (e.g. ≥ 55 kW),
boring mills, planning machine, horizontal boring
machine etc.
 Medium duty – e.g., lathes – 3.7 ~ 11 kW, column
drilling machines, milling machines etc.
 Small duty – e.g., table top lathes, drilling
machines, milling machines.
 Micro duty – e.g., micro-drilling machine etc.
THANK YOU!!

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