METHODS OF SCIENCE

The Scientific Method

What are the Steps? Write them
down on your notes.

 Define the problem

 Research the problem
 Make a Hypothesis
 Design and conduct an Experiment
 Analyze the Results
 Form a Conclusion

You can remember the steps by

the acronym “DR. HERC”.
 The Scientific Method
What are the Steps? Write them
down on your notes.

 Define the problem

 Research the problem
 Make a Hypothesis
 Design and conduct an Experiment
 Analyze the Results
 Form a Conclusion

The scientific method is NOT a linear process. It is likely that you will not
make it all the way through from start to end, but rather loop back many
times to revise parts of the experimental design depending upon how well
the experiment and data collection are proceeding. You must pay close
attention all along the way. All parts of the scientific method involve
making continuous observations and inferences!
 Observation
Defining the problem and researching it
involves making observations.
Observation means using our five senses
to take note of our surroundings.
However, we usually use measuring
tools and instrumentation (like rulers
and microscopes) to improve our
powers of observation!
Observations should be specific and
factual.
 Qualitative vs. Quantitative
Observations
Qualitative- Descriptions that do not include measurements
(The weather outside is hot and humid today).

Quantitative- Descriptions that do include measurements

(The temperature outside is 105 F and the humidity is
29%). These kinds of observations should include recording
the correct units of any measuring tools used.

Modern science requires that you collect both qualitative and

quantitative data. Quantitative data allows scientists the
ability to check each other’s work by repeating experiments.
It is not sufficient to collect only qualitative data that tends to
be more subjective and dependent upon the observer.
 Inference
An assumption or prediction about something
that you observe. It may or may not be
correct.

After you make an observation, you usually

make a logical inference about what you
think is going on or what the relationship is
between two factors.

Ultimately, you will use your inference(s) to

write a formalized hypothesis to test.
The Happy and Sad Balls Example
 Qualitative Observations Quantitative Observations

Inferences:
 Reminder about Observations
• 1) Make them very specific and detailed
(no prefixes like “it”). Numerical
information is especially valued
(measuring tools!)
• 2) Make your observations really address
the problem you are interested in. “The
balls are both round” is true but not as
relevant or meaningful to the problem at
hand as some other observations may be.
 Lab Pointers
• Thermometers are marked off in 5C
increments. Room Temp. is ~25 C
• Use level teaspoons and ½ teaspoons
• Dropper Pipets Graduated to 3 mL
• Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
• Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)
• Water (H2O)
• Universal Indicators stains hands and
clothes; Wash hands when done!
 Observation and Experiment Lab
Data Table A
-Physical Observations (color, state, texture, odor) of Each Chemical
-Test the Interactions Between Chemicals
• 1 teaspoon of calcium chloride
• ½ teaspoon of sodium bicarbonate C
• 5 mL of universal indicator solution (2 full pipet suctions) A B

 Change in temperature,  T = Tfinal - Tinitial, Record both initial and final temperatures to calculate.
if  T = (+), reaction released heat to the bag.
If  T = (-), reaction absorbed heat from the bag
 Volume change - describe qualitatively
 pH Change - record initial and final values - increase means less acidic, decrease means more acidic
 Time of reaction – record in minutes and seconds or all seconds
 Color change or Odor – describe qualitatively

- Infer: What interactions caused the changes observed?

- (Write 4 pertinent questions)
 Data Table B
Experiment Calcium Sodium Universal Distilled Observations- Qualitative and Quantitative Summary Observations
(Reaction Chloride Bicarbonate Indicator Water (temperature change of surrounding
Number) bag, volume change inside bag, color
change, pH change, time of reaction,
any new odor)
1
Present Present

2
Present Present Present

3
Present Present

4
Present Present Present

5
Present Present

6
Present Present Present

7
Present Present

8
Present Present

9
Present Present Present
 The Flower Experiment –
A hypothetical thought experiment
 The Flower Experiment –
Initial Observations and Inferences
I wonder what Nutriflor is
made from? I notice that
it looks like a white,
crystalline powder.
Could it be salt or sugar?
I can infer that it is added
to water and helps the
cut flowers live longer.
But what would help cut
flowers live longer? A I think I’ll set up an
background class in experiment to see if
biology taught me that adding glucose sugar
plants manufacture their to the water of cut
own food in the form of flowers will increase
sugar (glucose) during the lifespan of the
the chemical reaction of flowers. If it does, I
photosynthesis. Could think I can reasonable
this be glucose? I could infer that Nutriflor
write the company to ask, could contain glucose
but they might not tell me sugar.
what is in their secret,
proprietary formula of
Nutriflor.
The problem statement of an
experiment should be written

in the form of a question.

 The Problem:

“How does the amount of glucose sugar

added to water affect a flower’s lifespan?”
 Independent Variable

The part of the experiment that the scientist

(or nature) changes. It is also called the
manipulated variable.
 Independent Variable (IV)

The part of the experiment that the scientist

(or nature) changes.

IV = The amount of glucose sugar.

Don’t just say that the IV is “sugar”! Why not?
 Dependent Variable (DV)
Nature’s response to
changing the
independent
variable. The
scientist observes
and measures it. It
is also called the
responding
variable.
 Dependent Variable (DV)
Nature’s response to changing
the independent variable. The
scientist observes and
measure it. Ideally, you want
the DV to be something that
can be quantified by numbers.

DV = Lifespan of flower, as
indicated by texture, color, or
maybe the number of days for
petal to fall off, etc).

In reality, it might be hard to

know what indicates that a
flower is actually “dead”. You
might pick one indicator initially
and then later decide that there
is a better indicator for “dead”
once you start the experiment.
 The Hypothesis:

A specific prediction that can be tested

by experiment. It states what should
happen if the IV and DV are related in the
way that you think they are related.
 Example Hypothesis:
I think I’ve noticed that
students that do their
homework tend to get better
grades in chemistry. I’d like to
do an experiment to formally
test that question!

Based upon your observations

and inferences.
 Example Hypothesis:
If your grade is positively related to the
amount of homework you complete,
then you will get a higher grade by
doing homework because it will force
you to practice and ultimately learn the
concepts better than if you do not
practice.

1) State it in the form of an

“if…then…because” statement.
 The Hypothesis:
If your grade is positively related to the
amount of homework you complete,
then you will get a higher grade by
doing homework because it will force
you to practice and ultimately learn the
concepts better than if you do not
practice.

2) State the DV first, followed by the IV.

Separate them by “is related to”. Make your
prediction right after the “then”. Explain why you
think they are related after the “because”. The
reasoning should be based in logic and science.
The Formalized Hypothesis

If ____DV____ is related to ____IV____, then

____________YOUR PREDICTION__________
because _____SCIENTIFIC REASONING___.

Where DV = dependent variable (you measure)

Where IV = independent variable (you change)
Back to Our Flower Experiment:
Problem: “How does the amount of glucose
sugar added to water affect a flower’s
lifespan?”
DV
Hypothesis: If ___________ is related to
IV
____________ then ______
PREDICTION
_______________________
because________________.
 The Formalized Hypothesis
If the lifespan of a daisy flower (number of
days until the petals fall off) is related to the
amount of glucose added to the water, then
the flowers that receive more glucose should
live longer than those that do not because
plants need glucose to live based on our
knowledge of photosynthesis.

Where DV = dependent variable (you measure)

Where IV = independent variable (you change)
The Experiment is all about…
Parts of an experiment:
1) Independent variable
(amount of glucose
sugar).
2) Dependent variable
(days until petals fall
off).
3) Constants (many!).
4) Control (often present,
but not always).
 The Experiment’s Constants

The parts of the

experiment that
don’t change
throughout the
experiment
because do not
let them vary.
 The Experiment’s Constants
Examples:
Type of flower.
Type of sugar.
Amount of water.
Room
temperature.
Amount of light.
Color of light.
 The Experiment’s Control:
The part of the
experiment that the
scientist makes
comparisons to,
generally the normal
condition

In this experiment, the

control would be a
flower in plain water
without glucose
because we normally
put cut flowers into
plain water.
 The Experiment’s Control:
Don’t confuse the “control” with the
term “controlled experiment”. A
controlled experiment just means
that you have one I.V, one D.V.
and everything else that could be
varied has been set constant.
EVERY EXPERIMENT SHOULD BE A
CONTROLLED EXPERIMENT!
UNCONTROLLED EXPERIMENTS
HAVE CONFOUNDING FACTORS! In
other words, there are other hidden
factors that are affecting the DV other
than just the IV. You want to avoid this
situation!
 Collecting Experimental Data
Data Table:
A chart that organizes
experimental observations.
# tsp. # days until all petals
The independent variable of drop off
goes in the 1st column. sugar Trial Trial Trial Ave.
1 2 3
The dependent variable goes
in the 2nd column. 0 4 4 4 4

Collect at least 3 trials

1 6 5 7 6
(repetitions) of data. 3 8 10 6 8
Set up your table before you 5 4 2 6 4
conduct an experiment.
 Processing Experimental Data
Graph: A visual
representation The Effect of Sugar on Flower Lifespan
of the data
table. 10

Days Until All

Petals Drop
8
6
The independent 4
variable goes 2
on the x-axis. 0
0 2 4 6
The dependent Teaspoons of Sugar
variable goes
on the y-axis.
 Processing Experimental Data
Graphs allow for easy
interpolation and
extrapolation. The Effect of Sugar on Flower Lifespan

Interpolation- Estimating 10

Days Until All

Petals Drop
between data points. 8
(i.e. connecting the
dots) 6
4
Extrapolation- Estimating 2
beyond the range of 0
data collection (i.e. 0 2 4 6
predicting data
outside of the the Teaspoons of Sugar
range of the
independent variable).
This can be risky!
Correct Graphing Methods Activity
Car Speed Car Stopping Distance
(m/s) (m)
11 18

16 32

20 49

25 68

29 92
 A Best-Fit Line
-It best approximates data with a linear trend.
-It does not have to pass thru the origin or all of the points.
-Always use a ruler to draw it!

http://serc.carleton.edu/mathyouneed/graphing/bestfit_sample.html
 Data Analysis
• Raw data collection should go to significant
digits and include uncertainties ( ___ units)
• Data analysis includes any calculations – such
as averages
• Briefly label what each calculation represents.
• You may want to include a “calculations data
table” that shows the results of your calculations
• Graph data appropriately using the type of graph
best suited to the data. A line graph with a best
fit line may or may not be appropriate. Follow
the graphing check list I gave you.
 Conclusions
Your conclusion should ALWAYS refer back
to your hypothesis. The 3 possibilities
are:
1) The experimental results support your
hypothesis (but not prove it).
2) The experimental results refute your
hypothesis.
3) The experimental results may be
inconclusive.
You must cite your data to explain how and
why!
 Conclusion
• Paragraph form with complete sentences
• Restate the problem
• Restate the hypothesis
• Cite how the data does or does not support the
hypothesis and how you know (cite specific,
important data)
• Discuss any confounding factors that may have
influenced the results other than the IV.
• Discuss sources of error (systematic error)
• Make meaningful suggests for improving the
experiment or discuss further steps that might be
taken were the investigation to continue
 Scientific Models
• Develop after the scientist has analyzed the data
• An attempt to explain what is possibly going on
• May be verbal, visual, or mathematical
Scientific Theories and Laws
Hypothesis – a specific testable statement based on observations and
inferences
-May or may not be supported by evidence. If not, it is discarded.
- Examples: Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis
Continental Drift Hypothesis

Scientific Theory – an explanation of nature which has been tested

many times in many ways.
- Many lines of evidence support it
- Complex. Some aspects may still be open to modification.
- Examples: Plate Tectonics Theory
Atomic Theory

Scientific Law - specific, conclusive statement about nature.

- No exceptions
- Often mathematical in form.
- Examples: Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion: F= ma
Law of Conservation of Energy (1st law of
thermodynamics)
 In Other Words….
Hypothesis
Extensive Testing
and Multiple Lines
of Support

Scientific Theory Scientific Law

Both are accepted by the
scientific community as true
 Research andTechnology
Pure Research – for the sake of knowledge
Ex. Unraveling the genetic code of a dragonfly
Ex. Investigating the chemical composition and crystal
structure of a new mineral

Applied Research - for the purpose of solving a specific and

pressing problem.
Ex. Building artificial trees that can absorb carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases from the atmosphere to reduce
global warming
Ex. Understanding the reproductive cycle of a bark beetle in
order to control the population and prevent forest destruction.

Technology is the practical application of scientific information

Ex. GPS, cell phones, nuclear power, fuel-cells, radar guns
 Design Lab Format
1) Provide a proper heading with name, date, and period
2) Restate the prompt.
3) List your observations (quantitative and qualitative) and research. Be specific
and detailed.
4) State logical inferences about the phenomenon. Pick your best inference to
pursue in an experiment.
5) Identify both an IV and DV. The DV should be quantitative.
6) Write the specific Problem in the form of a question
7) Write a formalized hypothesis in the if-then-because format.
8) Identify constants (as many meaningful ones as you can think of).
9) Identify a logical control (if there is one).
10) Identify the materials you will need (reasonable things).
11) Write a specific step-by-step procedure for conducting the experiment.
Include “how much” of things to use and sizes of equipment needed.
12) Construct a data table to record quantitative data. Use a ruler. Clearly label
each column and row and specify the units for the measurements you will be
collecting. Make sure you have room for at least 3 trials and the averages of
the three trials. Below the data table, leave room for recording qualitative
data too.
 Design Lab Format
1) Provide a proper heading with name, date, and period
2) Restate the prompt.
3) List your observations (quantitative and qualitative) and research. Be specific
and detailed.
4) State logical inferences about the phenomenon. Pick your best inference to
pursue in an experiment.
5) Identify both an IV and DV. The DV should be quantitative.
6) Write the specific Problem in the form of a question
7) Write a formalized hypothesis in the if-then-because format.
8) Identify constants (as many meaningful ones as you can think of).
9) Identify a logical control (if there is one).
10) Identify the materials you will need (reasonable things).
11) Write a specific step-by-step procedure for conducting the experiment.
Include “how much” of things to use and sizes of equipment needed.
12) Construct a data table to record quantitative data. Use a ruler. Clearly label
each column and row and specify the units for the measurements you will be
collecting. Make sure you have room for at least 3 trials and the averages of
the three trials. Below the data table, leave room for recording qualitative
data too.
 Design Lab – Data Collection and
Processing
Recording Raw Data
• Data table should have labels and units for both columns and rows
• Data table should be complete, including averages of trial data
• Data should reflect uncertainties correlated to equipment used
• Paragraph below data should describe qualitative data in sentences
Processing Data
• Data should be calculated correctly with example calculation shown
• You may want to add a second data table for calculated data (as
opposed to the raw data)
• Slopes should be calculated correctly if needed
Presenting Data
• Graph choice should be appropriate for data type
• Paragraph below graph describes important findings and things the
reader should note/realize to understand the relationship between
the independent and dependent variable.
 Design Lab – Data Collection and
Processing
Recording Raw Data
• Data table should have labels and units for both columns and rows
• Data table should be complete, including averages of trial data
• Data should reflect uncertainties correlated to equipment used
• Paragraph below data should describe qualitative data in sentences
Processing Data
• Data should be calculated correctly with example calculation shown
• You may want to add a second data table for calculated data (as
opposed to the raw data)
• Slopes should be calculated correctly if needed
Presenting Data
• Graph choice should be appropriate for data type
• Paragraph below graph describes important findings and things the
reader should note/realize to understand the relationship between
the independent and dependent variable.