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Computer Networks: Lecture Notes
Computer Networks: Lecture Notes
Lecture Notes
Module I
T C Mishra
tarini@silicon.ac.in
Department of Computer Science Engineering &
Application
Out Line of Module I
Overview of Data Communications and Networking
Physical Layer
Digital Transmission
Analog Transmission
Multiplexing
Transmission Media
Circuit switching and Telephone Network
Full-duplex: bi-directional
and simultaneously. Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 7
Computer Networks
Interconnection of ‘Intelligent devices’ is called a
‘computer network’
Network Criteria: to design an effective and efficient
network the most important criteria are
‘Performance’ depends on
No of users: large no of users may slow down the ‘response time’
due to heavy traffic
Type of transmission medium: defines the speed at which the data
can travel (speed of light is the upper bound)
Hardware: A high-speed computer with greater storage provides
better performance
Software: efficient mechanisms to transform raw data into
transmittable signal, to route the signals, to ensure error-free
delivery etc.
the service
Security depends on
Unauthorized access should be prevented
Should be protected from viruses, spy wares, etc.
same time.
ETC.
not shared
It is robust as breaking one link couldn't disturb the network
completely
Privacy/security is maintained
connections
Expensive in terms of cost and space
‘enterprise network ‘
speed is less than LANs
section
Timing: refers to two characteristics. i. When data
• Signals
• Digital Transmission
• Analog Transmission
• Multiplexing
• Transmission Media
Aperiodic Signal
Periodic Signal
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 46
Analog Signals
The sine wave is the most fundamental form of
a periodic signal
Represented as s(t)=Asin(2ft+)
Characteristics
Amplitude: intensity of signal at any given time
Frequency: no of cycles/periods in one second,
measured in Hz
Frequency = 1/Period
Phase: describes the position of the waveform
relative to time zero
A complete cycle is 360o = 2
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 47
Amplitude Period and frequency
Solution
The answer is definitely no. Although the signal can have the
same bandwidth (1000 Hz), the range does not overlap. The
medium can only pass the frequencies between 3000 and 4000
Hz; the signal is totally lost.
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 54
Digital Signals
Digital signals can be better described by two terms
Bit interval: time required to send a single bit
Bit rate: number of bit intervals in one second
A digital signal is a composite signal having an infinite
number of frequencies i.e. infinite bandwidth
The digital BW is bits per sec (bps)
Solution
Throughput: number of
bits passed per second at a
given point
Wavelength: is the
distance a signal can travel in
=c/f
Line coding
Block Coding
Sampling
Transmission Mode
Solution
At 1 Kbps:
1000 bits sent 1001 bits received1 extra bps
At 1 Mbps:
1,000,000 bits sent 1,001,000 bits received1000 extra bps
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 70
Line Coding Schemes
Note:
Note:
Note:
Note:
Note:
Note:
Note:
Note:
-1
-3
Steps in Transformation
Division
Substitution
Line Coding
Note:
Note:
Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to
4000 Hz.
Sampling rate = 4000 x 2 = 8000 samples/s
More speed
Cost is high restricted to short distance
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 108
Serial Transmission
One bit follows another using same line
Note:
In synchronous transmission,
we send bits one after another without
start/stop bits or gaps.
It is the responsibility of the receiver to
group the bits.
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 113
Synchronous Transmission
More speed
Synchronization is necessary
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Bit/Baud Comparison
Solution
Because the transmission is full duplex, only 6000 Hz is
allocated for each direction.
BW = baud rate + fc1 fc0
Baud rate = BW (fc1 fc0 ) = 6000 2000 = 4000
But because the baud rate is the same as the bit rate, the bit
rate is 4000 bps.
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 121
Phase Shift Keying
Phase of carrier signal varies
to represent a binary 1
(180o)or 0 (0o) also called 2-
PSK or binary PSK
Avoids problems of noise and
bandwidth
Can be represented in a
constallation diagram or
phase-state diagram
BW=same as of ASK
More variations in phase may
be added to represent more
than one bit
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 122
Other variations of PSK
4-PSK / Q-PSK, 2 bits per baud
Note:
Methods:
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
• Multiplexing
• Transmission Media
• Switching
t
• Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient BW to
accommodate modulated signal
•These BW ranges are channels through which the various
signal travel
• Channels must be separated by strips of unused BWs
(called Guard Bands) to prevent signals from overlapping
• Carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original
signals
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 134
Example 1
Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 KHz. We need to
combine three voice channels into a link with a bandwidth of 12 KHz,
from 20 to 32 KHz. Show the configuration using the frequency domain
without the use of guard bands.
Solution
Shift (modulate)
each of the three
voice channels to
a different
bandwidth, as
shown in Figure
5 x 100 + 4 x 10
= 540 KHz
as shown in Figure
Solution
1. The duration of 1 bit is 1/1 Kbps, or 0.001 s (1 ms).
2. The rate of the link is 4 times the rate of connection, i.e. 4
Kbps.
3. The duration of each time slot is 1/4 th of the bit duration
before multiplexing i.e. 1/4 ms or 250 s.
or inverse of data rate i.e. 1/4 Kbps = 250 ms.
4. The duration of a frame is same as duration of each unit,
i.e. 1 ms.
or 4 times the bit duration i.e. 4 * 250
Computer ms = 1ms
Networking / Module I / TCM / 141
Example
Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each channel sends 100
bytes/s and we multiplex 1 byte per channel, show the frame traveling on
the link, the size of the frame, the duration of a frame, the frame rate, and
the bit rate for the link.
Solution
Solution
Core: glass or plastic, cladding: covering with less dense glass or plastic
Disadvantages
Installation and Maintenance
Cost
Fast enough for interactive Fast enough for interactive Fast enough for interactive
Messages are not stored Packets may be stored until Packets may be stored until
transmitted delivered
The path is established for Route established for each Route established for entire
entire conversation packet conversation
Call set-up delay, transmission Packet transmission delay Call setup delay, packet
delay transmission delay
Busy signal if called party busy Sender may be notified if Sender notified of connection
packet not delivered denial
Overload may block call setup; Overload increases packet delay Overload may block call set-up;
no delay for established calls increases packet delay
Usually no speed or code Speed and code conversion Speed and code conversion
conversion
Fixed Bandwidth Dynamic use of bandwidth Dynamic use of bandwidth
No overhead bits after call Overhead bits in each Overhead bits in each
setup packet packet
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 166
End of Module I