Water Measurement

Brady S. McElroy, P.E.

USDA-NRCS
Lamar, Colorado
 Objectives
• Why is water measurement important to
IWM?
• Explain some of the mathematics of water
measurement
• Discuss some of the common measuring
devices encountered in NRCS work
• Discuss other opportunities for measurement
• Work some example problems
 Why is water measurement important?

• Difficult to effectively manage irrigation

without measurement
• Positive aspects
– Maximize use of available water supply
– Reduced cost due to leached nutrients
– Reduced environmental impact from over-
irrigation
 Why is water measurement important?

• Some measurement may have a negative

connotation
– Regulatory (mandated by state, etc.)
– Billing
 Why is water measurement important?

• Water is one of the most precious resources in

the West
– Increased competition among water users
“Whiskey is for drinking.
Water is for fighting over.”

Mark Twain
 References
Primary reference for NRCS is Chapter 9 of
Part 623 (Irrigation) of the National
Engineering Handbook

•States that NRCS’ reference shall be the Bureau of

Reclamation’s Water Measurement Manual, 3rd
edition, published in 1997
•Available online at
http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/hydraulics_lab/pubs/wmm/
 References
Other useful references

• Other NRCS documents

• Irrigator’s Guides
• Extension publications
• Hydraulic texts
– King’s Handbook of Hydraulics
 Definitions
Volume: length3

Flow Rate (Q): volume/time

Velocity: length/time

Area: length2
Head- measurement Definitions
of the energy in a fluid.
Units are typically length.
•Total head at a given point is the sum of three
components
– Elevation head, which is equal to the elevation of the point
above a datum
– Pressure head, which is the height of a column of static
water that can be supported by the static pressure at the
point
– Velocity head, which is the height to which the kinetic
energy of the liquid is capable of lifting the liquid
 Definitions
Pressure- measurement of the force acting on a
surface. Units are force/length2

Often convenient to express in terms of feet of fluid

(pressure head)
h=p/γ
(multiply psi x 2.31 for feet of H20)
 Units
• Typically in U.S. Customary units for irrigation
work.
• Units vary depending on type of measurement
– Q vs. volume
– Open channel vs. pipe flow
 Units
Flow rate units expressed in volume/time

• Open channel flow

– Cubic feet per second (cfs)
• second-feet

• Pipe flow
– Gallons per minute (gpm)
 Units
Handy Conversion Factor

1 cfs = 448.8 gpm

or

1 cfs ≈ 450 gpm

 Units
May also vary regionally
• Shares
• Some canals refer to a head of water as a
delivery unit
– Not the same as energy measurement
• Miner’s inches
– 38.4 miner’s inches = 1 cfs (Colorado)
– 40 miner's inches = 1 cfs (California, et al.)
– 50 miner’s inches = 1 cfs (New Mexico, et al.)
 Units
A share is not a share is not a share

Canal Allocation/share (cfs)

Bessemer 0.0150
Colorado 0.0125
Rocky Ford Highline 0.180
Oxford 0.0960
Otero 0.050
Holbrook 0.0250
Catlin 0.0180
Rocky Ford 0.140
Fort Lyon 0.0150
Amity 5 cfs at 0.6 hr/share
Lamar 0.0100
 Units
Volume units are often expressed in units of
area x depth or depth

Acre-foot = volume of water that would cover 1

acre to a depth of 1 foot
• 12 acre-inches
• 43,560 cubic feet
• 325,851 gallons
 Units
Handy Conversion Factor

1 cfs for 24 hours ≈

2 acre-feet
or

1 cfs ≈ 1 ac-in/hr
Water Measurement Mathematics
Water Measurement Mathematics
Water Measurement Mathematics
Continuity Equation

Q=vA
Irrigator’s Equation

Qt=Ad
Continuity Equation

Q=vA

Q = flow rate
v = velocity
A = area

Qin Qout

v1 v2
A1 A2
Continuity Equation

Q=vA

v=Q/A

A=Q/v
 Continuity Equation
Given: d=12 inches
v=2.5 ft/s

Find: Q in cfs

12 in.
Q
v=2.5 ft/s
 Continuity Equation

Solution: Q = vA 12 in.
Q

d 2 v=2.5 ft/s

A
4
(1ft )2
A
4
A = 0.785 ft2
Q = 2.5 ft/s x 0.785 ft2 = 1.96 ft3/s
Irrigator’s Equation

Qt = Ad

Q = flow rate
t = time
A = area
D = depth
Irrigator’s Equation

d = Qt/A

Q = Ad/t

t = Ad/Q

A = Qt/d
 Irrigator’s Equation
Given: d = 3 inches
A = 50 acres
Q = 2 cfs

Find: Time required to apply d

 Irrigator’s Equation
Solution: t = dA/Q

1 cfs ≈ 1 ac-in/hr
(3in)(50ac )
t
2 ac  in
hr
t = 75 hours
 Irrigator’s Equation
Given: t = 36 hours
A = 20 acres
Q = 2 cfs

Find: Depth of applied water, d

 Irrigator’s Equation
Solution: d = Qt/A

1 cfs ≈ 1 ac-in/hr

( 2 ac  in )(36hr )
d hr
20ac

d = 3.6 inches
 Water Measurement Devices
Most water measurement devices either sense
or measure velocity, or measure either pressure
or head.

Tables, charts, or equations are then used to

calculate the corresponding discharge
 Water Measurement Devices
Devices that sample or sense velocity

• Current meters
• Propeller meters
• Vane deflection meters
• Float and stopwatch
 Water Measurement Devices
Devices that measure head or pressure
– Open channel devices commonly use h
– Pipeline devices may use p

• Flumes
• Orifices
• Venturi meters
• Weirs
– Velocity is computed from h, so weirs are classifed as head
measuring devices
 Open Channel Devices

• Weirs
• Flumes
• Submerged Orifices
• Other devices
 Weirs
A weir is an overflow structure installed
perpendicular to open channel flow
• Has a unique depth of water at an
upstream measuring point for each
discharge
• If the water springs clear of downstream
face, acts as sharp-crested weir
• A long, raised channel control crest is a
broad-crested weir
 Weirs
• Usually named for the shape of the overflow
opening
– Rectangular
– Triangular
– Cipolletti
• Lowest elevation on overflow is zero reference
elevation for measuring h
 Weirs
Rectangular weirs can be either contracted or
suppressed
• Suppressed weirs use side of flow channel for
weir ends
– No side contraction occurs
– Often used in divide boxes

• Canal overshot gates can act as weirs

Weirs
 Weirs

Cipolletti Weir
 Weirs

Weir Box Turnout with Cipolletti Weir

 Weirs

Compound Weir
90 degree triangular and suppressed rectangular
 Weirs
Advantages
• Simple to construct
• Fairly good at passing trash
• 1 head measurement
Disadvantages
• High head loss
• Susceptible to sedimentation problems
• Sensitive to approach and exit conditions
 Weirs
Conditions needed for sharp-crested weirs
• Upstream face should be plumb, smooth, normal to
axis of channel
• Entire crest should be level for rectangular and
Cipolletti. Bisector of V-notch angles should be
plumb for triangular.
• Plate should be thin enough to act as a sharp-crested
weir
– Chamfer downstream edge if necessary
– Upstream edge must be straight and sharp
– Thickness should be uniform for entire length
 Weirs
• Maximum downstream elevation should be at
least 0.2 ft below crest
• Head measurement should be greater than
0.2 ft for optimal elevation
• Head is measured upstream 4 X maximum
head on crest
• Approach must be kept free of sediment
deposits
 Weirs
Given: Standard Contracted Rectangular
Weir
L = 2 feet
h = 0.40 feet

Find: Q, in cfs

Solution: Refer to Table A7-2 in BoR Water

Measurement Manual, 3rd edition
Weirs
 Weirs
Inspection of Existing Structures
• Approach flow
• Turbulence
• Rough water surface at staff gage
• Velocity head
• Exit flow conditions
• Worn equipment
• Poor installation
– Crest must be correctly installed
 Weirs

Poor approach condition

 Weirs

Sediment in approach pool

 Flumes
Flumes are shaped open channel flow sections.
• Force flow to accelerate
– Converging sidewalls
– Raised bottom
– Combination
• Force flow to pass through critical depth
– Unique relationship between water surface profile
and discharge
 Flumes
Two basic classes of flumes
• Long throated flumes
– Parallel flow lines in control section
– Accurately rate with fluid flow analysis
• Short throated flumes
– Curvilinear flow in control section
– Calibrated with more precise measurement
devices
 Short Throated Flumes
Parshall Flume is most well-known example
of short throated flumes
• Developed by Ralph Parshall at Colorado
Agricultural College (now Colorado State
University)
• ASAE Historic Landmark
 Parshall Flumes
Since the beginning of irrigated agriculture, it has been important to measure
flows of irrigation water. Accuracy of early water measurement methods
often suffered because of trash or sediment in the water, or unusual flow
conditions. Ralph L. Parshall saw this problem when he began working for the
USDA in 1915, as an irrigation research engineer. In 1922 he invented the
flume now known by his name. When this flume is placed in a channel, flow is
uniquely related to the water depth. By 1953 Parshall had developed the
depth-flow relationships for flumes with throat widths from 3 inches to 50
feet. The Parshall flume has had a major influence on the equitable
distribution and proper management of irrigation water. Thousands of flumes
have been used to measure irrigation water, as well as industrial and
municipal liquid flows throughout the world. This plaque marks the site of the
original Colorado Agricultural College Hydraulics Laboratory, where Parshall
carried out his historic experiments.
DEDICATED BY THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERS 1985
Parshall Flumes
 Parshall Flumes
• Designated by throat width
– Measure 0.01 cfs with 1 inch flume
– Measure 3000 cfs with 50 foot flume
• Dimensions are standardized for each flume
– Not geometrically proportionate
• A 12 ft flume is not simply 3x a 4 ft flume
• Relate Ha (or Ha and Hb ) to discharge with
rating equation, or consult appropriate chart
 Parshall Flumes
• Flow occurs under two conditions
– Free flow
• Downstream water surface does not reduce discharge
• Requires only 1 head reading (Ha)
 Parshall Flumes
– Submerged flow
• Downstream flow is high enough to reduce discharge
• 2 head readings required
• 50% submergence (Hb/Ha) on 1-3 inch flumes
• 80% submergence (Hb/Ha) ≥8 feet flumes
• After 90% submergence, flume is no longer effective

Ha
Hb
 Parshall Flumes
Advantages
• Relatively low head loss (1/4 of sharp crested
weir)
• Handle some trash and sediment
• Well accepted
– May be mandated
• Many sizes are commercially available
 Parshall Flumes
Disadvantages
• Complicated geometry for construction
• Tight construction tolerances
• Aren’t amenable to fluid flow analysis
• BoR does not recommend for new
construction
Parshall Flumes
 Parshall Flumes
Given: 1 foot throat Parshall Flume
Free flow
Ha = 0.40 feet

Find: Q, in cfs

Solution: Refer to Table A8-12 in BoR Water

Measurement Manual, 3rd edition
Parshall Flumes
 Parshall Flumes
Given: 1 foot Parshall Flume
Ha = 1 ft
Hb = 0.8 ft

Find: Q, in cfs
 Parshall Flumes
Solution: Determine if submergence
exceeds 70% (Hb/Ha)

0.8/1.0=0.8>0.7

Therefore, must correct for

submergence
 Parshall Flumes
Solution: From table A8-12, Q=3.95 cfs

Find correction factor

Use Figure 8-16
Parshall Flumes
 Parshall Flumes
Correction=0.35 ft3/s

Actual Q =(free flow Q) – (correction)

=3.95 ft3/s – 0.35 ft3/s
=3.6 ft3/s
 Broad-crested Weirs
Long throated flume where only the bottom is raised.
No side contractions
• Also called ramp flumes, Replogle flumes
Broad-crested Weirs
 Broad-crested Weirs

Long throated flume (broad-crested weir) under construction)

 Broad-crested Weirs

Long throated flume (broad-crested weir) Q = 1200 cfs

 Broad-crested Weirs
Advantages
• Easily constructed, especially in existing
concrete lined channels
• WinFlume software available to quickly design
and rate structures
• Less expensive construction
• Low head loss
• Handle trash and sediment well
 Broad-crested Weirs
Disadvantages
• Some state laws or compacts may preclude
use
• Not readily accepted by some water users
– Not what they’re used to using
 Other Flumes
Several other types of flumes are used
• H-flumes
• Cutthroat flumes
• Palmer-Bowles
Other Flumes
 Flumes
Inspection of Existing Structures
• Approach flow
– Flumes are in-line structures
– Should have smooth flow across width and depth of cross
section
– Length of straight approach varies depending on control
width, channel width, and velocity
• Turbulence
• Level both along and perpendicular to flow
• Excessive submergence
• Exit flow conditions
 Submerged Orifices
A well defined sharp-edged opening in a wall or
bulkhead through which flow occurs
• When size and shape of the orifice and the
heads acting on it are known, flow
measurement is possible
• Orifices are typically circular or rectangular
in shape
• Can be used to regulate and measure
water in a turnout structure
• Radial gates can act as submerged
orifices
Submerged Orifices
 Submerged Orifices
Advantages
• Less head required than for weirs
• Used where space limitations prevent weir or
flume
Disadvantages
• Sediment and debris accumulation will
prevent accurate measuring
• Typically not used if conditions permit flumes
which handle trash better
 Current Meters
Velocity measuring devices
• Sample velocity at one point
– Point sample isn’t representative of average
velocity in flow are
• Develop relationship between observed and average
velocity, or
• Take multiple velocity readings
• Use continuity equation (Q=vA) to compute
discharge
 Current Meters
Types of current meters
• Anemometer
• Propeller
• Electromagnetic
• Doppler
• Optical strobe

Anemometer and propeller are most common for

irrigation work
Current Meters

Anemometer type current meter

 Other Open Channel Methods
Slope-Area Method
• Slope of water surface and average cross-
sectional area used with Manning’s equation
• Difficult to estimate “n”
• Can only approximate Q
 Float Method
Similar in concept to current meters
• Velocity is estimated by timing how long a
floating object takes to travel a pre-
determined distance
• Observed velocity is adjusted by some factor
to estimate average velocity
• Determine cross-sectional flow area
• Use continuity equation to estimate Q
• Provides only a rough estimate
Float Method
 Pressurized Conduit Devices
Pipeline devices are usually classified by their
basic operation
• Calibrated velocity sensing meters
• Differential head meters
• Positive volume displacement summing
meters (municipal water)
• Measured proportional or calibrated
bypass meters
• Acoustic meters
 Differential Head Meters
Include venturi, nozzle, and orifice meters
• When properly installed, accuracy ±1%
– Some irrigation operating conditions probably limit
accuracy to ±3-5%
• No moving parts
– Uses principle of accelerating flow through a constriction
– Resulting pressure difference is related to discharge using
tables or curves, or a suitable coefficient and the proper
equation
 Venturi Meter
Common differential head meter
• Minimal head loss
• Full pipe flow required
• Also used to inject chemicals into an irrigation
system
– Pressure reduction is used to pull chemicals into
the system
• Examples of venturi meters constructed of
standard plastic pipe fittings
Venturi Meter
 Nozzle Meter
Simplified form of venturi meter
• Gradual downstream expansion of venturi is
eliminated
• Higher head loss than venturi
• Full pipe flow required
• Not used extensively in irrigation
Nozzle Meter
 Orifice Meter
Another differential pressure meter
• Often used for measuring well discharge
• Also used to measure chemical injections
– Typically small meters with details provided by
manufacturer
• Requires long straight pipe lengths
• Full pipe flow required
• Limited discharge ratio
Orifice Meter
 Elbow Meters
Measure pressure difference between inside and
outside of an elbow
 Propeller Meters
Used at end of pipes and in conduits flowing full

• Multiple blades that rotate on horizontal

axle
• Must have full pipe flow
• Basically operate on Q=vA principle
• Usually have totalizer plus instantaneous
discharge display
• Accuracy can be ±2-5% of actual flow
Propeller Meters
Propeller Meters

Saddle type propeller meter

Propeller Meters
 Propeller Meters
• Should be selected to operate near middle of
design discharge range
– If system has oversized pipes, some sections may
need replaced with smaller pipes to provide
correct velocity and approach
• Must be installed to manufacturer’s
specifications for accurate measurement
• Must have full pipe flow
 Propeller Meters
Advantages
• Commercially available
• Totalizing meter
• Can achieve good accuracy
 Propeller Meters
Disadvantages
• Operating conditions different from
manufacturer’s calibration conditions will
affect accuracy
• Only tolerate small amount of weeds and
debris
• Moving parts operating underwater
• Can require a good deal of maintenance and
inspection
 Other Conduit Devices
Pitot Tube Velocity Measurements
• Piezometer
– Straight tube attached flush to wall and perpendicular
– Senses pressure head in pipe
• Pitot Tube
– Right angle bend inserted with horizontal leg pointed
upstream and parallel to flow
– Senses both velocity and pressure head
• Velocity head, flow area, and coefficient can then be
used to calculate flow rate
Pitot Tube Velocity
 Other Conduit Devices
• Magnetic Flowmeters
– Use the principle that voltage is induced in an electrical
conductor moving through a magnetic field. Conductor is
flowing water
– For a given field strength, the magnitude of the induced
voltage is proportional to velocity
• Deflection Meters
– Vane or plate projecting into flow and a sensing element to
measure deflection
– Calibrated to indicate flow in desired units
• Vortex Flowmeters
– Obstructions in flow generate vortex shedding trails
• Properly shaped obstructions create vortices that can be sensed
and related to velocity
 Other Conduit Methods
Trajectory Method
• Measure the horizontal and vertical
coordinates of a point in the jet of water
issuing from the end of a pipe
• Accurate ±15%
• Coordinates can be difficult to accurately
measure
 Trajectory Method
• Vertical Pipe
• Two kinds of flow occur, depending on how high water
rises
– <0.37d, circular weir
– Transistional region between
– >1.4d, jet flow

• Horizontal Pipe
– Pipe must be truly horizontal; slope will skew
results
• Vertical component can be difficult to measure
Trajectory Method
Trajectory Method
Trajectory Methods
 Other Conduit Methods
Power Consumption Coefficients
• Volume discharged from wells can be estimated
using power consumption records
– Wells must be analyzed to determine the energy needed
to pump a certain volume of water
– Relationship can then be used to estimate discharge
volume
– Only certified well testers can perform the tests and
develop the power consumption coefficient
– Must recalibrate every 4 years, or more often depending
on conditions
 Other Conduit Methods
Siphon Tubes
• Estimate discharge based on head, diameter,
and length of siphon tubes
• Accuracy ±10-15%
• Provides an in-field method of estimating flow
• Information also available in irrigator’s guides
and NRCS Engineering Field Manual, Chapter
15
Siphon Tubes
Siphon Tubes
 Summary
• Water measurement is an important component of
IWM
• BoR Water Measurement Manual
• Continuity equation
– Q=vA
• Irrigator’s equation
– Qt=dA
• 1 cfs≈450 gpm
• 1 cfs≈1 ac-in/hr
 Summary
• Open channel devices
– Flumes
– Weirs
– Submerged orifices
• Pressurized conduit devices
– Propeller meters
– Differential head meters
 Summary
• Installation requirements
– Examine existing structures
• Other opportunities for measurement
– Canal gates
– Float method
– Power consumption coefficient
– Pipe trajectory
– Siphon tubes
Questions?