LIFE 110B

Lecture 9 –
(a) Introduction to Transport in
Biological systems
(b) Mass Transport and Heat Transport

2012 Lecturer: Dr. Natasha Ramroop Singh

What is Transport Phenomena?

• A transport phenomenon is any of various mechanisms by which

particles or quantities move from one place to another. The laws
which govern transport connect a flux (amount that flows
through a unit area per unit time ) with a "motive force".

rate of transfer process = driving force/resistance

• There are three main categories of transport phenomena with

their respective driving forces:
• Heat transfer (conduction, convection, radiation) ( ΔT and heat transfer
coefficients)
• Mass transfer (diffusion, osmosis) (ΔC and Mass Transfer coefficients)
• Fluid dynamics (or momentum transfer) / (ΔP and Momentum Transfer
coefficients)
What is Transport Phenomena?

 It is important to note that in molecular, heat,

or mass transport, there are many
similarities. The molecular diffusion
equations of Newton for momentum, Fourier
for heat, and Fick for mass are very similar.

 Many Biomedical engineering problems

require the mathematical equations for the
Heat, Mass and Momentum Balance to be
solved simultaneously.
Transported quantity Physical phenomenon Equation

Viscosity
(Newtonian fluid)
Momentum

Heat conduction
(Fourier's law)
Energy

Molecular diffusion
Mass
(Fick's law)
Why Do We need Transport
Phenomena?
 The laws of Thermodynamics only treat systems
that are in equilibrium. They can predict the
amount of energy required to change from one
equilibrium state to another but they cannot
predict how fast these changes will occur.

• Transport Phenomena and Reaction Kinetics

supplement the laws of Thermodynamics by
providing methods of analyses that can be used
to predict rates of energy transfer real-time.
 Kinetics vs. Thermodynamics
 Thermodynamics dictates equilibrium (which says whether this reaction will take place).

 Says nothing about what rate (how fast) the reaction will be.

 The endothermic or exothermic qualities of a reaction are indicated by ΔH (enthalpy).

Negative enthalpy indicates exothermic reaction Positive enthalpy indicates
endothermic reaction

 Thermodynamics is independent of reaction mechanism (concerned with original and

final states only). Thermodynamics concerns the equilibrium constant. Kinetics involves
the rate of the reaction.
Kinetics vs. Thermodynamics
 Kinetics is affected by catalysts. The rate of the reaction involves the
activation energy. Catalysts lower the activation energy, which causes
the reaction to speed up. Kinetics concerns the rate constant k (lower-
case).

 Examples of thermodynamics-kinetics feuds :

Combustion (aka burning) of my physical chemistry book is
thermodynamically favored. Unfortunately, it is not favored kinetically
because the activation energy for the combustion reaction is too high
for the present conditions. One could always invest a little energy in
the form of a flame and start the reaction. The energy produced from
the combustion would supply the activation energy of the next
reaction. The conversion of diamond into graphite is
thermodynamically favored (negative ΔH.) The speed of this reaction is
just too incredibly slow for a diamond to turn into graphite.
 In biomedical engineering, some Transport
phenomena of interest are:
1) Thermoregulation (the ability of an organism to keep its body
temperature within certain boundaries, even when the
surrounding temperature is very different.)

2) Perfusion (the process of nutritive delivery of arterial blood

to a capillary bed in the biological tissue), and

3) Microfluidics (deals with the behavior, precise control and

manipulation of fluids that are geometrically
constrained to a small, typically sub-millimeter, scale
MASS TRANSFER
 Mass Transfer  When a component in a
mixture migrates in the same phase or from
phase to phase because of a difference in
concentration

rate of a transfer process = driving force

resistance
Mass transfer

Mass transfer is the net movement of mass

from one location to another.
Mass transfer is used by different scientific
disciplines for different processes and
mechanisms.
The phrase is commonly used in engineering
for physical processes that involve molecular
and convective transport of atoms and
molecules within physical systems.
Mass transfer

Mass transfer finds extensive application in chemical engineering problems.

Often, chemical species transfer between two phases through an interface or

diffusion through a phase.

The driving force for mass transfer is a difference in concentration; the

random motion of molecules causes a net transfer of mass from an area
of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

For separation processes, thermodynamics determines the extent of

separation, while mass transfer determines the rate at which the
separation will occur. The amount of mass transfer rate can be quantified
through the calculation and application of mass transfer coefficients.
Mass transfer

 When a system contains two or more components whose

concentrations vary from point to point, there is a natural
tendency for mass to be transferred, minimizing the
concentration differences within a system. The transport of one
constituent from a region of higher concentration to that of a
lower concentration is called mass transfer.

 The mechanism of mass transfer involves both molecular

diffusion and convection.
 Mass transfer
When a system contains two or more components whose concentration vary from point to
point, there is a natural tendency for mass to be transferred, minimizing any concentration
difference within the system.
 Mass Transfer in a system is governed by Fick's First Law: 'Diffusion flux from higher
concentration to lower concentration is proportional to the gradient of the concentration of
the substance and the diffusivity of the substance in the medium.'

Mass transfer can take place due to different driving forces. Some of them are:

 Mass can be transferred by the action of a pressure gradient(pressure diffusion)

 Forced diffusion occurs because of the action of some external force
 Diffusion is caused by temperature gradients (thermal diffusion)

This can be compared to Fourier's Law for conduction of heat:

where D is the diffusivity constant.

Fick’s law:

An empirical relation for the diffusional molar flux, first postulated by

Fick and, accordingly, often referred to as Fick’s first law, defines the
diffusion of component A in an isothermal (constant temp), isobaric
(constant pressure) system. For diffusion in only the Z direction, the
Fick’s rate equation is:
dC A
JA   D AB
dZ

Where D AB is diffusivity or diffusion coefficient for component A

diffusing through component B, and dCA / dZ is the concentration
gradient in the Z-direction.
Diffusivity

Fick’s law proportionality, D AB, is known as mass diffusivity (simply as

diffusivity) or as the diffusion coefficient. D AB has the dimension of L 2 /
t, identical to the fundamental dimensions of the other transport
properties: Kinematic viscosity,  = ( / ) in momentum transfer, and
thermal diffusivity,  (= k /  C  ) in heat transfer.

Diffusivity is normally reported in cm2 / sec; the SI unit being m2 / sec.

 Diffusivity depends on pressure, temperature, and composition of the

system.
Diffusivity
 Below, some values of DAB are given for a few gas, liquid, and solid systems.

 Diffusivities of gases at low density are almost composition independent, increase

with the temperature and vary inversely with pressure. Liquid and solid
diffusivities are strongly concentration dependent and increase with temperature.

 General range of values of diffusivity:

Gases : 5 X 10 –6 ------------- 1 X 10-5 m2 / sec.

Liquids : 10 –6 ------------- 10-9 m2 / sec.
Solids : 5 X 10 –14 ------------- 1 X 10-10 m2 / sec.

 In the absence of experimental data, semi theoretical expressions have been

developed which give approximation, sometimes as valid as experimental values,
due to the difficulties encountered in experimental measurements.
Table 1.1
Diffusivity in liquids:

In chemistry, diffusivity limits the rate of acid-

base reactions; in the chemical industry,
diffusion is responsible for the rates of liquid-
liquid extraction. Diffusion in liquids is
important because it is slow.
Diffusivity in liquids:

Certain molecules diffuse as molecules, while others which are

designated as electrolytes ionize in solutions and diffuse as ions. For
example, sodium chloride (NaCl), diffuses in water as ions Na + and
Cl-. Though each ions has a different mobility, the electrical
neutrality of the solution indicates the ions must diffuse at the same
rate; accordingly it is possible to speak of a diffusion coefficient for
molecular electrolytes such as NaCl. However, if several ions are
present, the diffusion rates of the individual cations and anions must
be considered, and molecular diffusion coefficients have no
meaning.

 Diffusivity varies inversely with viscosity when the ratio of solute to

solvent ratio exceeds five. In extremely high viscosity materials,
diffusion becomes independent of viscosity.
Possible driving force for mass transfer

1.Concentration different
2.Pressure different
3.Electrical gradient, etc
Types of Mass Transfer
1. Molecular diffusion
– Transfer of individual molecules through a fluid by random
movement
– From high concentration to low concentration
– E.g. a drop of blue liquid dye is added to a cup of water – the dye
molecules will diffuse slowly by molecular diffusion to all parts of the
water.
- To increase this rate of mixing of the dye, the liquid can be
mechanically agitated by a spoon and convective mass transfer will
occur.
2. Convective mass transfer
– Using mechanical force or action to increase the rate of molecular
diffusion
– E,g stirred the water to dissolve coffee during coffee making
Transport processes must occur across
various boundaries in the body
Definition of Transport Processes
 Two physical phenomena are involved in the transport of
molecules: diffusion and convection.

 Diffusion is the random motion of molecules that arises

from thermal energy transferred by molecular collisions

 Convection is a mechanism of transport resulting from

the bulk motion of fluids

 The movement of energy and momentum in biological

systems is influenced by these two mechanisms
 FLUX AND GRADIENTS
Definition of Flux: The net movement of molecules through a unit area in
a given direction per unit time
 CONVECTION AND DIFFUSION
For a fixed length of scale and velocity, diffusion is most important
for small molecules e.g O2. Convection is essential to transport larger
molecules such as proteins and cells.
 Effect of distance on diffusion and
convection times.

This plot shows how

diffusion times and
convection times change
with distance transported.

For short distances,

convection is slower than
diffusion, whereas for
longer distances, diffusion
is slower than convection
 Recall Lecture 4: Schematic of a
mammalian eukaryotic cell, showing the
major organelles.
Transport within cells

 In order to regulate the movement of

molecules into and through cells, specialized
mechanisms have developed in cells to
transport molecules efficiently.
 Protein synthesis – Endoplasmic reticulum
 Protein degradation – lysosomes
 Export of proteins – Golgi Apparatus
 Cell division - Nucleus
MAJOR ORGANELLES OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS
The cell plasma membrane

Cell plasma membrane consists of lipids and proteins. The proteins are either
classified as transmembrane (span the entire membrane) or peripheral proteins
(present on one side of the membrane or partially embedded in the membrane).
Both lipids and proteins contain charged sugar groups referred to as glycolipids
and glycoproteins respectively

.
 Lipid bilayers
 Exhibit limited permeability to molecules.
 Hydrophobic molecules (O2, N2 & CO2) and small
organic molecules have HIGH permeability.
 Small polar solutes e.g. urea have much lower
permeability.
 Ions are virtually impermeable
 Surprisingly, water has high permeability
 Transport proteins (either carrier or channel)
facilitates transport of ions and small polar
molecules
Transport proteins

 Solutes bind to the carrier protein and are

carried across the membrane due to a
conformational change in the molecule

 Transport across channels occur when

hydrophilic pores open within the proteins,
allowing solutes to diffuse through
Comparison of carrier-mediated transport
and diffusion across cell membranes.
Table 1.8
Simplified schematic of the blood flow
distribution throughout the body.
Diagram of the heart showing the four chambers,
valves, and veins leading into and arteries
leading away from the heart.
 Heat Transfer
 Bioheat transfer is the study of heat transfer in biological
systems.
 In simpler terms, it is the study of how heat moves from
one compartment, be it within the body or external to
the body, to another compartment in the body.
 Bioheat transfer has its foundations in the engineering
discipline of heat transfer and is itself a subfield of
biomedical engineering or bioengineering.
 In addition, computational techniques to model various
bioheat transfer scenarios are widely employed and hold
an important place in developing devices and protocols
for the medical community.
 The Cardiovascular System
 The cardiovascular system is the key system by which heat is distributed
throughout the body. The blood serves as the vehicle to transport heat
from the areas of high heat to areas of lower heat.

 In general this transfer takes place in the direction from body core to
extremities such as the limbs and head. In the case where the extremities
are hotter than the core body temperature, perfusion (In physiology,
perfusion is the process of nutritive delivery of arterial blood to a capillary
bed in the biological tissue) would serve to transport heat from the
extremity back towards the body core.

 Whether or not the core temperature rises depends on many factors such
as the duration of elevated local temperature at the extremity,
temperature difference between extremity and core, volume of blood
heated above core temperature, and the rate of blood perfusion.
 This same moderating phenomena of blood perfusion can be applied to
local heat transfer problems e.g. heating of a tumor.
Cast of a human lung, showing the trachea (T),
one bronchus (B), the pulmonary artery (PA), and
the pulmonary vein (PV) & schematic of the
organization of the airways in the human lung.
Oxygen–hemoglobin and oxygen–myoglobin dissociation curves.
The fractional saturation is the relative amount of heme
groups bound to molecular oxygen.
Schematic of transport and major reactions of
oxygen and carbon dioxide with hemoglobin (Hb)
in red blood cells. (HbO2)4 represents the fully
oxygenated hemoglobin molecule.
 • END OF LECTURE

• Next week – Lecture #10

• Final Exam to start study
for!