Suspension Systems

 Frames
 Two types
(ladder and
unibody)
 Ladder

• Separate body/frame
• Body bolted to frame
• Separated by body mounts with rubber insulators
Suspension Systems

 Springs
 Springs are used to support the vehicle and
cushion the passenger from road bumps.
• Springs come in many different materials and styles,
even pneumatic.
 Leaf springs
• Semi-elliptical is the only leaf type in common use
Suspension Systems

 Mounting (leaf spring)

• Bushing - rubber usually in front
• Shackle - permits spring to change lengths
• U-bolts
 Suspension Systems

Leaf spring parts

•Leaves
•Center bolt
•Eye
•Rebound clip
•Leaf pad
Suspension Systems

 Coil
• Spring wire heated and wound into coil
• Insulator pads used between frame and spring
• Ends of coils are shaped
to fit application
Suspension Systems
 Torsion bar
• Straight spring steel bar
Suspension Systems

 Air suspension systems

• Air spring, diaphragm, and plunger
• Some vehicles use air bags
• Conventional springs are replaced by four air bags or air
spring assemblies to support the vehicle and control its
height
• Air pump to supplies compressed air
• Control and leveling valves will be at each wheel
• Devices will control height and ride of vehicle -
either by driver command and/or automatically
through computer
Suspension Systems
 Shocks
 Shocks are velocity sensitive
• Faster pump rate means more resistance
• Creates heat
• Aerates fluid, creating foam
 Gas-charged shocks minimize fluid aeration
• Works like pressure cooker
 Internal piston uses spring-loaded metering valve and
orifices to control fluid flow
• Second valve controls fluid flow to outer tube - double tube
type (reservoir)
 May use defecting valve for oil control (single tube or
double tube type)
Suspension Systems

 Coil-over Shock
 Aftermarket design to replace
OEM equipment
Suspension Systems

 Load Levelers
 Shock usually heavy-duty
(extra-firm damping) with
coil spring added
 Compensates for heavier
loads
 Suspension Systems

 Air Shock
 Same concept as load levelers,
except an air chamber is used to
provide extra spring force
• Extra spring capacity varies by air pressure
 Suspension Systems

 Gas Shock
 Charged with nitrogen gas
 Prevents fluid foaming
 Reduces lag time - quick
shock response
 Controls even the smallest
movement
 Self-adjusting
 Improves cornering,
braking, and acceleration
stability
Suspension Systems
 Variable Damping Shock
 Both manually adjustable or
electrically adjustable are
available
 Manual damping changes
may be through external
knob
• May require
removal of shock
• May
require disassembly of
shock
Suspension Systems

 Newest shocks use a magnetic fluid which

can change damping effect in milliseconds
• (Magneto Rheological fluid)
 Another newer style self-adjusts to damp
firmly on smooth roads, but lightly on rough
roads
• Examples include the Edlebrock IAS and the Bose
Suspension System
Suspension Systems

 Front Suspension Systems

 A front suspension system must allow up and
down movement of wheels while also allowing
the wheels to be turned.
 The suspension system must also hold the
alignment angles for proper handling,
steering, and tire wear.
 Two types
• Solid axle or independent (live or dead)
Suspension Systems

 Solid Axle Suspension

 This system only has limited use in light trucks
but is used in almost all heavy trucks
 Chrysler and Jeep are the last big users in
light truck market
Suspension Systems

 Independent Front Suspension

 Twin I-beam front suspension
• Each front wheel is supported at the end of a
separate beam axle
• Wheel end uses king pins or ball joints to allow
steering knuckle to pivot
• Opposite ends of each beam axle are attached to
frame through flexible pivot
• Coil springs provide suspension
• Radius arms prevent backward or forward
movement of axle
Suspension Systems

 Short/Long Arm (SLA) Suspension

 Bottom longer
 Top shorter
 Reduces track change - tire
scrub
 Allows the wheel to tilt inward
at the top to keep the vehicle
tracking constant
 May have spring on upper or
lower control arm
Suspension Systems
 SLA Parts
 Short (upper) control arm
• Mounting with bushings
and cross shaft
• Some vehicles may use
eccentric bolts on upper Perform
caster
or lower control arms to & camber

make adjustments for adjustments

alignment
Suspension Systems

 Long (lower) control arm

• Bushing shaft
Suspension Systems

 Bushing - a sleeve that allows a controlled

amount of movement to take place between a
moveable part and a stationary one without
causing wear
• Bushings are used in many places
• Worn bushings will cause suspension problems
• Inspect bushing visually for cracked rubber, being
off-center, distorted, or missing
• Shiny area on shaft indicates movement
Warning: Do not distort control arm when removing or
installing control arm bushing.
Suspension Systems

 Suspension Pivot Inspection

 Ball joints
• A socket type joint that allows turning while moving
through an arc
• Found on at least one end of steering knuckle
• Worn ball joints will cause erratic steering, free play,
tire wear, and noise
Suspension Systems

 Ball joint
• Used as pivot point for steering
• May be follower or load carrying ball joint
• Ball joint that receives force from the spring is a load
carrying ball joint
Suspension Systems
• The follower (non-load carrying ball joint) connects
other end of knuckle to other control arm.
• Some ball joints have a wear indicator, including a
grease zerk, which can be used to determine joint
life.
Suspension Systems

 Jounce and rebound

bumpers
• Prevents control arms
from contacting frame
• If smashed - indicates
weak springs, bad
shocks or continuous
overloading of vehicle
Suspension Systems

 Strut rod
 Stabilizes single point lower control arm
 May provide caster adjustment
Suspension Systems
 McPherson Strut
 Used on most new vehicles
 Upper control arm replaced by strut assembly
which contains bearing, shock absorber, and
pivot point
 Coil spring on strut is most common
 Shock absorber will be either integral with strut
or replaceable cartridge
 Spindle now has only one ball joint
(lower/follower)
 Steering arm may be part of spindle or part of
strut
Suspension Systems

 Modified McPherson Strut

 Coil spring has been moved to lower control
arm
 Easier strut replacement
 Lower ball joint is now load carrying type
Suspension Systems

 Strut/SLA Suspension
 Uses unequal length A-arms
 Uses strut which does not pivot with steering
knuckle
 Gives steering geometry of SLA
 The lower ball joint is the load carrying ball
joint
Suspension Systems

 Rear Suspension
 Solid (live or dead)
• May use leaf springs, coils, torsion bars, or air
bags
 Leaf spring suspension
• Leaf springs provide both axle location and
torque transfer
 Coil springs require control arms for location
and torque transfer
• Usually two lower and one or two upper
• Uppers either angled or a track (panhard) rod
used for lateral location
Suspension Systems

 Torque tube or arm with

coil springs
• Springs provide only
suspension not location
• Torque tube or arm
transfers driving and
braking torque to the
chassis
• Control arms and/or a
track (panhard) rod
provide axle location
Suspension Systems

 Independent
• May use coils, transverse leaf, struts, or torsion
bars
• If live axle, differential is mounted to frame with
half shafts to the rear hubs
• Control arms are of various styles or multi-link
design
Suspension Systems
 Stabilizer Bars
 Stabilizer bars, also called sway bars, provide a lateral
link between the suspension on each side of a vehicle
 This is a torsion bar that provides a counteracting force
to the body during a turn to limit body lean on sway
 This attempts to keep the vehicle more level during turns
 May be used in front or both front and rear
 Will change handling characteristics
 Sway bars will not effect ride height
Suspension Systems

 All suspension modifications will affect

handling

Warning: While changes to suspension systems

can void warranties and may cause unsafe
handling, if done properly, they can improve
handling.

Caution: All modifications should be looked at

carefully for safety.
Suspension Systems

 Lubrication of Suspension Parts

 Grease fitting provided when required
 Use of Teflon® and special greases
 Do not grease rubber
• Will destroy rubber
 Some of latest bushings contain own lubricant
• These do not require lubrication throughout life
Suspension Systems

 Suspension Component Replacement

 Follow manufacturer (both vehicle and
replacement component) recommendations for
tools and methods
 Safety must be observed
• Springs store lethal force
• You are usually working under vehicle to perform
these operations
Warning: The force needed to remove and replace
suspension components can crush you.
Suspension Systems

 Torque specifications are critical

 Suspension parts should not fall off
 After work is completed, alignment will need
to be checked and vehicle road tested.
 Steering Systems

 Rack and Pinion Linkage

 Rack and pinion linkage does not use Pitman
and idler arms or centerlink
 Rack and pinion may mount:
• On frame/cradle (front steer and rear steer)
• On bulkhead
 Bellows allow linkage to exit rack without
allowing dirt in
• Check for holes or cuts in boot – replace boot if bad
• Oil or grease may be in boot, but are not always a
sign of a leaking system
Steering Systems

 Parallelogram Linkage
Steering Systems

 Steering Linkage
 Cross steering
• Used with solid axle
Steering Systems
 Haltenberger
• Used with Ford Twin I-Beam
Wheel Alignment

 What is Wheel Alignment?

 Balance of steering angles
 Provides correct relationship between caster,
camber, ball joint inclination, toe-in, and
turning radius
Wheel Alignment

 Alignment
Pre-Alignment Inspection
 Road test for:
 Pull
 Shake
 Shimmy (vibration)
 Steering wheel centered
 Steering wheel returns to center after turn
 Tire and bearing noises
 Scraping noises on sharp turns (may indicate
wrong tire size)
 Noise (clunks) in suspension
 Pre-Alignment Inspection
 Inspect tires for:
 Underinflation (wearing outer sections)
 Overinflation (wearing center section)
 Wearing inside of tire (toe-out or negative camber)
 Wearing outside of tire (toe-in or positive camber)
 Ply separation (bulges or uneven tread)
 Cuts, bruises or nails
 Same size tires on all wheels
 Right size tires on vehicle
 Best tires mounted on front (most accurate alignment)
Pre-Alignment Inspection
 Inspect springs/torsion bars for:
 Broken, sagged, or weak parts (rebound bumpers
broken or damaged)
 Damage to front and rear air springs
 Damage to connecting hoses (air springs) and
hardware
 Correct hose routing
 Leaking connections
 Air spring compressor operation, including connecting
hoses and fittings
 Air ride (suspension) control modules (proper
connections and damaged wiring)
Pre-Alignment Inspection

 Proper ride height

 Air ride height sensor damage or missing
connecting hardware
Pre-Alignment Inspection
 Inspect front and rear shocks or struts for:
 Leakage
 Physical damage (dented, bent)
 Loose mounting (rubber bushings missing or
damaged)
 Broken brackets
 Torn boots
 Looseness, damage, or binding in upper strut
 Excessive play in upper strut bearing
Pre-Alignment Inspection
 Inspect ball joints
 Follow proper procedures to unload joints
and check for axial and radial play

 Inspect control arms for:

 Damaged (cracked) or missing bushings
Pre-Alignment Inspection

 Inspect kingpin for:

 End play in bushings
 Missing end caps
 Locating pins missing
 Seized kingpins
 Refusal to take grease
 Check steering knuckle for damage
Pre-Alignment Inspection

 Inspect strut rod bushings for:

 Missing or damaged bushings
 excessive movement
 Heat damage from catalytic converter or
exhaust (rear mounted type)
 Missing heat shields
Pre-Alignment Inspection

 Inspect stabilizer bar links or mounts for:

 Broken or missing mounts at frame
 Damaged bushings on lower control arm
 Missing rubber bushings on sway bar links
Pre-Alignment Inspection
 Inspect the gear box for:
 Looseness in the Pitman arm (joint)
 Tightness of the mounting box
 Free play in gear box (preload adjustment)
• Adjust sector shaft if necessary according to OEM
procedures
 Damage to steering shaft coupler or U-joint
 Looseness and leakage of power steering
control valve
Pre-Alignment Inspection

 Idler arm play (up and down movement)

 Check OEM specifications with 25 lbs. of
force
 Check idler arm mounting to frame for
looseness
Pre-Alignment Inspection

 Inspect tie rods (inner and outer) for:

 No side to side movement
 Ability to rotate (test by grabbing tie rod and
twisting)
 Cotter pins on castellated nuts
 Inspect the linkage (both center link and
drag link) for:
 Damage
 Looseness
 Missing attaching hardware
Pre-Alignment Inspection

 Inspect rear suspension for:

 Worn bushings (control arms, strut rods, track
bars)
 Missing rebound bumpers
 Loose upper and lower ball joints
 Damaged or missing upper and lower control
arm bushings
 Clash marks on springs
 Broken leaves on leaf springs
Pre-Alignment Inspection
 Inspect the steering rack for:
 Worn mount bushings
• Rack housing should not move back and forth
• If worn, may result in lack of stability and/or
shimmy
 Looseness and play in inner tie rod ends (ball
and socket) and outer tie rod ends
 Torn rack and pinion bellows
• If torn, lubricant will leak out and dirt will enter
 Binding or hard steering
 Looseness in the rack and pinion unit
Pre-Alignment Inspection

 Inspect wheel bearings for:

 Looseness
 Noise
 Inspect the frame for:
 Bent subframes
 Missing fasteners
 Collision damage (bent components)
Wheel Alignment
 Steering Angles
 Affect tread wear, steering, and handling
 Designed into the chassis and suspension by
the manufacturer
 Some are adjustable, others may not be
 Angles that are not adjustable can only be
corrected by replacing bent or worn
components
Wheel Alignment

 Camber
 Tire wear angle
 Camber is inward (negative) or outward
(positive) tilt of wheel at top
 Excessive positive wears outside edge
 Excessive negative wears inside edge
Wheel Alignment

 Camber brings tire contact patch more nearly

under point of load
 Provides easier steering by having weight
correctly distributed over the wheel bearings
 Incorrect camber will cause:
• Excessive wear to ball joints and wheel bearings
• Excessive wear to one side of tire tread
• Vehicle to pull to one side
Wheel Alignment

 Caster
 Directional stability angle
 Caster is the forward or backward angle of
steering axis (ball joints, struts, or kingpins)
• Forward tilt is called negative caster
• Backward tilt is called positive caster
 Caster gives front wheels tendency to
maintain straight-ahead position
• Establishes a lead point for wheels to follow
Wheel Alignment
 Incorrect caster will cause:
• Pulling to side with most negative (-) caster
• Wander and weave (negative caster)
• Instability at high speeds (negative caster)
• Hard steering (positive caster)
• Excessive road shock and shimmy (most common
positive caster)
 Lead for road crown (optional)
• Right side may be a little more positive (1/4” to
1/2”) than left
Wheel Alignment
 Toe
 Most critical tire wearing alignment factor
 Difference in distance between front of front tires
and rear of front tires
• Measured in inches (or millimeters) at front and rear
of tires at same height
• Can be positive (toe-in) or negative (toe-out)
 Correct toe prevents side scuffing of tires while
vehicle is in motion
Wheel Alignment

 Designed to give 0° when vehicle is in motion

(running toe)
 Incorrect toe feathers tire
 4-wheel alignment requires toe checks at both
ends of vehicle
 Toe is also directional control angle
• If incorrect, can cause wander or shimmy
Wheel Alignment

 Toe-out on turns is the relative toe setting

of the front wheels, as they turn to left, or
right.
 When a vehicle makes a turn, each wheel
should rotate with true rolling motion, that
is free from tire scrub.
Wheel Alignment

 True rolling motion is only obtained when

each wheel is at 90 degrees to a line
drawn between the swivel axis and the
center of turn.
 Because the rear wheels are fixed, the
center of turn will lie somewhere along the
centerline of the rear axle, depending on
how far the steering wheel is turned from
the straight-ahead position.
Wheel Alignment

 To provide true rolling motion, the inner

wheel must be turned through a greater
angle than the outer wheel. This allows the
inner wheel to turn through a smaller
turning radius than the outer wheel.
 This automatically correct alignment is
obtained by use of the Ackerman principle
and layout. With the steering linkage at the
rear of the wheels,
Wheel Alignment

 the distance across the tie-rod ends, at the

steering arm joints, is made shorter than
the distance across the steering axis
swivels. This forces the inner wheel to turn
through a larger angle when the steering is
turned.
 The Ackerman angle is the angle the
steering arms make with the swivels, on
the centerline of the vehicle, at or near the
center of the rear axle.
Wheel Alignment

 Scrub radius is also known as steering

offset, and scrub geometry. It is the
distance between 2 imaginary points on
the road surface - the point of center
contact between the road surface and the
tire, and the point where the steering-axis
center-line contacts the road surface.
 If these two points intersect at the center
of the tire, at the road surface, then the
scrub radius is zero.
Wheel Alignment

 If they intersect below the road surface,

scrub radius is positive.
 If they intersect above the road surface,
scrub radius is negative.
 The effect of scrub radius - positive or
negative - is to provide a turning moment
which attempts to turn the wheel away
from the central position, when the vehicle
is in motion.
Wheel Alignment

 On a rear-wheel-drive vehicle with positive

scrub radius, the vehicle’s forward motion
and the friction between the tire and the
road causes a force which tends to move
the front wheels back. This would cause
the wheels to toe-out.
 If it has negative scrub radius, the front
wheels again tend to move back, but this
time, they toe-in.
Wheel Alignment

 On front-wheel-drive vehicles, the opposite

occurs. Positive scrub radius causes toe-
in, and negative causes toe-out.
 During braking, on any type of drive, if
braking effort is greater on one side of the
vehicle than the other, positive scrub
radius will cause the vehicle to veer
towards the side with the greater effort.
Wheel Alignment

 Negative scrub radius will cause the

vehicle to veer away from the side of
greatest effort. How much it veers
depends on the size of the scrub radius.
 This is why, vehicles with a diagonal-split
brake system have negative scrub radius
built into the steering geometry. If one half
of the brake system fails, then the vehicle
will tend to pull up in a straight line.
Wheel Alignment

 Since the offset of the wheel rim

determines where the centerline of the tire
meets the road surface, it is important that
the offset is not changed if wheels are
being replaced.
 Changing the rim offset changes the scrub
radius, and also the predictability of the
vehicle handling, if brakes
Wheel Alignment

 The axis around which the wheel

assembly swivels as it turns to the right
or left is called the steering axis. It is
formed by drawing a line through the
upper and lower pivot points of the
suspension assembly. Seen from the
front of the car, it is tilted inward.
Wheel Alignment

 The angle formed between this line and

the vertical, provides steering axis
inclination angles.
 Steering axis inclination acts, with
caster, to provide a self-centering of the
front wheels.
Wheel Alignment
 When the wheels are in the straight-
ahead position, the ends of the stub
axles are almost horizontal.
 When the wheels turn to either side, the
effect of steering axis inclination is to
make the ends of the stub axle tend to
move downward, but this is prevented
by the wheel. The stub axle carrier then
must move up, which raises the front of
the vehicle.
Wheel Alignment

 When the steering wheel is released,

the mass of the vehicle forces the stub
carrier back down, which pushes the
wheels back to a central position.
 With a vertical steering axis, no self-
centering would occur. The wheel
would pivot on a radius with the
steering axis as its center.
Wheel Alignment

 This would introduce a turning moment

on the wheel, road shocks would be
transmitted back to the steering wheel,
and steering would be difficult to
control.
Wheel Alignment

 Steering axis inclination brings the

pivot point close to the center of the
tire contact patch at the road surface. It
intersects with the camber line drawn
through the tire and the wheel.
 If these 2 lines intersect at the center of
the tire, at the road surface, then the
vehicle is said to have zero offset, or
zero scrub radius.
Wheel Alignment
 If they intersect below the road surface,
then it has positive offset or scrub
radius.
 If they intersect above the road surface,
then it has negative offset or scrub
radius.
 The angle between the steering axis
inclination and the camber line is called
the included angle. It is a diagnostic
angle.
Wheel Alignment

 Since the steering axis inclination is

not adjustable, if the camber angle is
correct, then the steering axis
inclination should also be correct, that
is it should match the specification.
Wheel Alignment

 Turning radius is a measure of the

vehicles turning circle when the
steering wheel is turned to its limit.
Wheel Alignment

 The thrust angle refers to all four wheels

and their relationship to each other and to
an imaginary centerline that runs from
each pair of wheels down the center of the
vehicle. The term 'thrust line' refers to the
direction in which the rear wheels are
pointing.