Intersections are where two or more roads meet and allow drivers to go straight or turn. There are three main types of intersections: at-grade, grade separations without ramps, and interchanges. At-grade intersections are the most common type where roads meet at the same elevation. Interchanges separate conflicting traffic streams onto different road levels.
Key considerations in intersection design include safety, efficiency, capacity and costs. Traffic control devices like signs and traffic lights are used to regulate vehicle movement and resolve conflicts. Different types of signs are used for regulations, warnings and directions. Channelization uses islands and markings to separate traffic flows and reduce conflicts.
Roger Dale Stafford, Sr. v. Ron Ward, Warden, Oklahoma State Penitentiary at McAlester Oklahoma Drew Edmondson, Attorney General of Oklahoma, 59 F.3d 1025, 10th Cir. (1995)
Intersections are where two or more roads meet and allow drivers to go straight or turn. There are three main types of intersections: at-grade, grade separations without ramps, and interchanges. At-grade intersections are the most common type where roads meet at the same elevation. Interchanges separate conflicting traffic streams onto different road levels.
Key considerations in intersection design include safety, efficiency, capacity and costs. Traffic control devices like signs and traffic lights are used to regulate vehicle movement and resolve conflicts. Different types of signs are used for regulations, warnings and directions. Channelization uses islands and markings to separate traffic flows and reduce conflicts.
Intersections are where two or more roads meet and allow drivers to go straight or turn. There are three main types of intersections: at-grade, grade separations without ramps, and interchanges. At-grade intersections are the most common type where roads meet at the same elevation. Interchanges separate conflicting traffic streams onto different road levels.
Key considerations in intersection design include safety, efficiency, capacity and costs. Traffic control devices like signs and traffic lights are used to regulate vehicle movement and resolve conflicts. Different types of signs are used for regulations, warnings and directions. Channelization uses islands and markings to separate traffic flows and reduce conflicts.
Intersections are where two or more roads meet and allow drivers to go straight or turn. There are three main types of intersections: at-grade, grade separations without ramps, and interchanges. At-grade intersections are the most common type where roads meet at the same elevation. Interchanges separate conflicting traffic streams onto different road levels.
Key considerations in intersection design include safety, efficiency, capacity and costs. Traffic control devices like signs and traffic lights are used to regulate vehicle movement and resolve conflicts. Different types of signs are used for regulations, warnings and directions. Channelization uses islands and markings to separate traffic flows and reduce conflicts.
Khisty and B. Kent Lall (Pages 287 – 301) TYPES OF INTERSECTIONS Intersections are an inevitable part of any street system. Driving around any city, one notices that a large majority of urban streets share an intersection, where drivers can decide whether to go straight or turn on to another street. A road or street intersection can be defined as the general area where two or more roads join or cross, including the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic movement within it (AASHTO, 2001). Because an intersection has to be shared by everybody wanting to use it, it needs to be designed with great care, taking into consideration efficiency, safety, speed, cost of operation, and capacity. The actual traffic movement and its sequence can be handled by various means, depending on the type of intersection needed (AASHTO, 2001). Geometric design of transportation facilities must provide for the resolution of traffic conflicts. These may be classified as merging, diverging, weaving, and crossing conflicts. Merging conflicts occur when vehicles enter a traffic stream; Diverging conflicts occur when vehicles leave the traffic stream; Weaving conflicts occur when vehicles cross paths by first merging and then diverging; and Crossing conflicts occur when they cross paths directly. Types of Traffic Conflicts Three basic ways of resolving crossing conflicts. Time-sharing solutions involve assignment of the right-of-way to particular movements for particular times. An example of this type of solution is the signalized intersection. Space-sharing solutions convert crossing conflicts into weaving conflicts. An example of this is the traffic circle or rotary. Grade separation solutions eliminate the crossing conflict by placing the conflicting traffic streams at different elevations at their point of intersection. Examples of this solution are freeway interchanges and highway-railway grade separations. TYPES OF INTERSECTIONS
In general, there are three types of
intersections: (1) intersection at grade, (2) grade separations without ramps, (3) interchanges. The common intersection at grade is one where two or more highways join, with each highway radiating from an intersection and forming part of it. These approaches are referred to as intersection legs. Such intersections have their own limitations and use. Exampe of at Grade Intersection When it is necessary to accommodate high volumes of traffic safely and efficiently through intersections, one resorts to through traffic lanes separated in grade, and this is generally referred to as an interchange. The basic types of interchanges are shown in slides to follow. When two highways or streets cross each other at a different grade, with no connections, the arrangement is referred to as a grade separation. Types of Interchanges Types of Interchanges DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND OBJECTIVES The objective of intersection design is to reduce the severity of potential conflicts between vehicles (including pedestrians) while providing maximum convenience and ease of movement to vehicles. Interchanges are high-cost facilities, and because of the wide variety of site conditions, traffic volumes, and interchange layouts, the warrants that justify an interchange may differ at each location. The bottom line when considering adoption of an interchange is clear: Four basic elements are generally considered in the design of at-grade intersections:
1) Human factors, such as driving habits and
decision and reaction times 2) Traffic considerations, such as capacities and turning movements, vehicle speeds, and size and distribution of vehicles 3) physical elements, such as characteristics and use of abutting property, sight distance, and geometric features 4) Economics factors, such as costs and benefits and energy consumption TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES Traffic control devices include signs, movable barriers, and signals. All these can be used alone or in combination if necessary. They are the primary means of regulating, warning, or guiding traffic, on all streets and highways. Traffic control devices strive to provide safe and efficient functioning of intersections by separating conflicting vehicle streams in time. Specifically, traffic signs and markings fulfill the following purposes: the regulation of traffic (e.g., speed limits), turn prohibition, alerting and warning drivers and pedestrians regarding roadway conditions, and guiding traffic along appropriate routes to reach trip destinations through signs and markings. Naturally, to be effective, control devices must meet the following basic requirements: 1) Fulfill a need 2) Command attention 3) Convey a clear, simple meaning 4) Command respect of road users 5) Give adequate time for proper response Traffic signs fall into four broad areas of functional classification according to use:
1)Regulatory signs are used to impose legal restrictions
applicable to particular locations. They inform drivers of certain laws and regulations, the violation of which constitutes a misdemeanor (misdeed). There are four principal groups excluding those for pedestrians: a) right-of-way signs, the most common being stop and yield signs; b) speed signs; c) movement signs, such as turning or one-way signs; d) parking signs. 2) Warning signs are used to call attention to hazardous conditions, actual or potential, that would otherwise not be readily apparent. Such signs require caution on the part of the driver and may call for a speed reduction or other maneuver. Typical conditions where warning signs are used include highway construction zones and approaches to intersections, merging areas, pedestrian crossings, and school zones. 3) Guide or informational signs provide directions to drivers and to various destinations. These are placed far enough ahead of intersections and interchanges to allow adequate time for drivers to make their routing decisions.
4)Directional signs on high-speed highways are
used at interchanges associated with freeways. CONFLICT AREAS AT INTERSECTIONS Figure 8-3 shows vehicle streams and the merging, diverging, and crossing maneuvers for a simple four-leg intersection, and for a more complicated staggered intersection. Such diagrams are useful because the number and type of conflicts may indicate the accident potential of an intersection. In the case of a regular two-lane, two-way, four-leg intersection there are 16 potential crossing conflict points, eight merging and eight diverging conflict points. Vehicle Streams and the Merging, Diverging, and Crossing Maneuvers The staggered T-intersection shown in the figure serves about the same function as the four-leg intersection, and consists of only six potential crossing conflict points, three diverging and three merging conflict points. Is the staggered Tintersection, therefore, superior to the four-leg intersection? Not really. There are several other factors that play an important part in deciding the merits of adopting a particular type or design of intersection for a specific site. TYPES OF INTERSECTION CONTROLS There are at least six principal ways of controlling traffic at intersections, depending on the type of intersection and the volume of traffic in each of the vehicle streams. Stop signs are warranted at intersections under the following conditions: • Intersection of a less important road with a main road, where application of the • Normal right-of-way rule is unduly hazardous • Intersection of a county road, city street, or township road with a state highway • Street entering a through highway or street •Unsignalized intersection in a signalized area •Unsignalized intersection where a combination of high speed, restricted view, and serious accident record indicates a need for control by the stop sign Yield signs are established as follows: 1) On a minor road at the entrance to an intersection when it is necessary to assign the right-of-way to the major road, but where a stop is not necessary at all times, and where the safe approach speed on the minor road exceeds 10 mph 2) On the entrance ramp to an expressway, where an adequate acceleration lane is not provided 3)Where there is a separate or channelized right- turn lane without an adequate acceleration lane 4)At any intersection where a problem can be possibly corrected by a yield sign installation 5)Within an intersection with a divided highway, where a stop sign is present at the entrance to the first roadway, and further control is necessary at the entrance to the second roadway. Median width between roadways must exceed 30 ft. Intersection Channelization Channelization is the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements into definite paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement markings to facilitate the safe and orderly movements of both vehicles and pedestrians. Proper channelization increases capacity, improves safety, provides maximum convenience, and instills driver confidence. Channelization is frequently used along with stop or yield signs or at signalized intersections. Some basic principles to help design channelized intersections are as follows: 1) Motorists should be provided with channel lines that are easy to follow. 2) Sudden and sharp reverse curves should be avoided. 3) Areas of vehicle conflict should be reduced as much as possible. 4) Traffic streams that cross without merging and weaving should intersect at or near right angles. 4)Islands should be carefully selected and be as few as possible. 5)Over channelization should be avoided, as it has proved to be counterproductive. Figure gives typical examples of channelized intersections. The Intersection Channelization Design Guide (TRB, 1985) and AASHTO (2001) provide further details on channelization. Typical examples of Channelized Intersections Rotaries and Roundabouts Rotaries and roundabouts are channelized intersections comprising a central circle surrounded by a one-way roadway. The basic difference between rotaries and roundabouts is that rotaries are generally signalized, whereas roundabouts are not. Naturally, in the case of roundabouts, entering traffic yields to traffic already within. Roundabouts generally have good safety records and traffic does not have to stop when traffic volumes are low. A well-designed roundabout should deflect the path of vehicles passing through an intersection by the use of a sufficiently large central island, properly designed approach islands, and staggering the alignment of entries and exits (see Figure). Uncontrolled Intersections Where an intersection has no control device what so ever, the operator of a vehicle approaching an intersection must be able to perceive a hazard in sufficient time to alter the vehicle's speed, as necessary, before reaching the intersection. The time needed to start decelerating is the driver's perception and reaction time and may be assumed to be 2.0 seconds plus an additional 1.0 second to actuate braking or to accelerate to regulate speed. . In addition, the driver needs to begin braking some distance from the intersection. Traffic Signal Devices One of the most important and effective methods of controlling traffic at an intersection is the use of traffic signals. The traffic signal is an electrically timed device that assigns the right-of-way to one or more traffic streams so that these traffic streams can pass through the intersection safely and efficiently. Traffic signals are appropriate for minimizing the following: 1) Excessive delays at stop signs and yield signs 2) Problems caused by turning movements 3) Angle and side collisions 4) Pedestrian accidents
Roger Dale Stafford, Sr. v. Ron Ward, Warden, Oklahoma State Penitentiary at McAlester Oklahoma Drew Edmondson, Attorney General of Oklahoma, 59 F.3d 1025, 10th Cir. (1995)