ARTICLES, ADVERBS,

ADJECTIVES,
PREPOSITIONS,
CONJUNCTIONS.
Nishi Kumari
18SCMC48
 Articles (a, an, the) are determiners or noun markers which specify if the noun is general or specific
in its reference.
 Types of articles.
 Definite article.
 the (before a singular or plural noun)
 It is used to show specific reference.

 Indefinite articles.
 a (before a singular noun beginning with a consonant sound)
an (before a singular noun beginning with a vowel sound)
 They are used when the noun referred to is nonspecific or generic.
 Count nouns - refers to items that can be counted and are either singular or plural.
 Non-count nouns - refers to items that are not counted and are always singular.

 When to use a or an (Indefinite articles)

 I do not own a car.
 Car is a singular countable noun that is not specific. It could be any car.

 She would like to go to a college that specializes in teaching.

 College is a singular countable noun. It is also generic (it could be any college with this specialization, not a
specific one).
 I would like to eat an apple.
 Apple is a singular countable noun that is not specific. It could be any apple.

As the indefinite article specifies one thing (e.g., a cup means one cup), it is not used with non-countable
nouns (e.g., water, air, integrity). For example:
•I need an air.
•Play me a music.

Sometimes
 a or an can be used for first mention. Then, in subsequent sentences, the article the is used instead.
 E.g. He would like to live in a large house. The house should be comfortable.
 A is used when the noun that follows begins with a consonant sound.

 a book

 a uniform (Here uniform starts with a vowel, but the first sound is /j/ or a “y” sound. Therefore a
instead of an is used here.)
 An is used when the noun that follows begins with a vowel sound.

 an elephant

 an MBA (Here MBA starts with a consonant, but the first sound is /Ɛ/ or a short “e” sound.
Therefore, an instead of a is used here.)

Be especially careful with abbreviations:

•An MOT (The letter "em" starts with a vowel sound.)

•An LRS (The letter "el" starts with a vowel sound.)
•A US diplomat (The letter "yoo" starts with a consonant sound.)
 When to use the (Definite article)
 The is used with both singular and plural nouns and with both countable
and uncountable nouns when the noun is specific.
 The book that I read last night was great.
 Book is a singular, countable noun. It is also specific because of the
phrase “that I read last night.”
 The writer and reader know which book is being referred to.
 The books assigned for this class are very useful.
 In this sentence, books is a plural, countable noun. It is also specific
because of the phrase “for this class.”
 The advice you gave me was very helpful.
 In this sentence, advice an uncountable noun. However, it is specific
because of the phrase “you gave me.” It is clear which piece of advice was
helpful.
 Here are some more specifics:
 The is used in the following categories of proper nouns:
•Buildings: the Empire State Building, the Willis Tower
•Seas and oceans: the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean
•Rivers: the Mississippi, the Nile
•Deserts: the Sahara Desert, the Sonora Desert
 In general, use the with plural proper nouns.
 the Great Lakes
 the French

 The is often used with proper nouns that include an “of” phrase.
 the United States of America
 the University of Minnesota
 the International Swimming Hall of Fame

 Use the when the noun being referred to is unique because of our understanding of the world.
 The Earth moves around the sun.
 Wolves howl at the moon.
 Use the when a noun can be made specific from a previous mention in the text.
 This is also known as second or subsequent mention.
 My son bought a cat. I am looking after the cat while he is on vacation.
 I read a good book. The book was about how to use articles correctly in English.

 No Article--Generic Reference
 If the noun is countable and plural (e.g.., research studies) or uncountable (e.g., information)
and it is being used in a nonspecific or generic way, no article is used.
Some specifics are:

No article is used when a plural countable noun is generic or nonspecific.

•I bought new pens and pencils at the store. (general, not specific ones)
•Cats have big eyes that can see in the dark. (cats in general, all of them)

No article is used when a noncount noun is generic or nonspecific.

I bought milk and rice at the store. (generic reference)
We were assigned homework in this class. (generic reference)
 https://www.englishpage.com/articles/articles_24.htm

 https://www.learnenglishfeelgood.com/english-article-no-article1.html#

 https://www.english-grammar.at/online_exercises/articles/article2.htm
 An adverb is a part of speech that provides greater description to a verb, adjective, another adverb, a
phrase, a clause, or a sentence.
 Adverbs work closely with verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

Here are some examples of adverbs modifying verbs:

 He runs quickly.
 She walks slowly.
 Adverbs can also modify adjectives or other adverbs. They provide more information about that
other descriptive word.
 For example:
 He runs very quickly.
 In this sentence, the adverb "very" is describing the adverb "quickly" ("very quickly" can be used as
an adverb phrase).
 An incredibly pretty girl sat down next to me.
 In this sentence, the adverb "incredibly" is describing the adjective "pretty."
 Pick out an adverb from a sentence by looking for the word ending in –ly,
which is not universally true.

•The dog messily ate his dinner.

•I happily handed in my test.

 Many high-frequency words are also adverbs.

•The puppy's behavior was very bad.

•The much smarter boy won the spelling bee.
Adverbs: meanings and functions
Adverbs have many different meanings and functions. They are especially important
for indicating the time, manner, place, degree and frequency of something.

time I never get up early at the weekends.

manner Walk across the road carefully!

place When we got there, the tickets had sold out.

degree It’s rather cold, isn’t it?

frequency I’m always losing my keys.

 Adjectives are words that describe the qualities or states of being of nouns.
 Adjectives Modify Nouns
 Margot wore a beautiful hat to the pie-eating contest.
 Furry dogs may overheat in the summertime.
 Here adjectives are easy to spot because they come immediately before the nouns they
modify.
 But adjectives can do more than just modify nouns. They can also act as a complement to
linking verbs or the verb to be.
 That cow sure is happy.
 It smells gross in the locker room.
The technical term for an adjective used this way is predicate adjective.
 Common Errors with Adverbs and Adjectives
 Since adverbs and adjectives both modify other words, people often mistakenly use an
adjective when they should use an adverb and vice versa.
 He behaved very bad on the field trip.
 He behaved very badly on the field trip.
 This is incorrect because "bad" is an adjective being used to describe "behaved," which is
a verb.

 His behavior was bad on the field trip.

 Here, the adjective "bad" is correctly describing the noun "behavior."
 Good and Well
 The words good and well are common triggers to the adverb vs. adjective confusion.
 Good is an adjective that modifies nouns.
For example: That good boy (n.) just gave his little sister a hug.
 Well is an adverb that modifies verbs or even adjectives.
For example: He listens (v.) well.
 That well educated (adj) woman went on to marry a celebrity.
 When Nouns Become Adjectives and Adjectives Become Nouns
 Never try to pet someone’s guide dog without asking permission first.
 Guide is a noun. But in this sentence, it modifies dog. It works the other way, too. Some
words that are normally adjectives can function as nouns:
 Candice is working on a fundraiser to help the homeless.
 Here, homeless is functioning as a noun. But the terms “adjective” and “noun” aren’t just
about a word’s form—they’re also about its function.
Adverbs and Adjectives
1. We can pay you well (Good)
2. Tim is well (good) known for his sense of humour.
3. Last Saturday, when he told the joke about the fireman and the school teacher, everybody
there started laughing uncontrollably (Uncontrollable)
4. They looked nervous (Nervous) and angry (Angry) - Noun
5.Luigi looked at me unhappily (unhappy). - Verb
6.He looked at me carefully (careful).
7.He got the food fresh (fresh) from the market.
8.That boy speaks so loud (loud)
9.Flowers smell good (sweet)
It describes the smell of flowers.
Smell sweetly tells how a rose smells i.e. flowers do not have noses so they cannot smell!!
10. "Fresh bread smells sweetly " (adjective)
I am describing my opinion on fresh bread
11. "I smell terribly (terrible) because I have a cold“ (adverb) –
I am not able to use my nose to smell things because of my cold.
12. They smelled something really(real)terrible(terrible).
13. They were perfectly (perfect) happy (happy) about their Christmas presents.
 COPULAs can be followed by complements which can be nouns or adjective:
14. The meat smells slightly (slight) bad.
(the adverb describes the complement not the verb)
15. I smell a figurative (figurative) rat.
(the adjective describes the complement)
16. She spoke intelligently (intelligent).
(Here the adverb intelligently modifies the ordinary verb spoke.)
17. She appears intelligent (intelligent).
(Appears is a copular verb. It should be followed by an adjective, not an adverb.)

 Copular Verbs are (is, am, are, was, were), appear, seem, look, sound, smell, taste, feel, become
etc.
 Conjunctions are words that link other words, phrases, or clauses together.
 I like cooking and eating, but I don’t like washing dishes afterward.
 Sophie is clearly exhausted, yet she insists on dancing till dawn.

 Conjunctions allow you to form complex, elegant sentences

 and avoid the choppiness of multiple short sentences.

 The phrases joined by conjunctions are parallel (share the same structure).
 I work quickly and am careful.
 I work quickly and carefully.
 Coordinating Conjunctions
 Coordinating conjunctions allow you to join words, phrases, and clauses of equal
grammatical rank in a sentence. The most common coordinating conjunctions are for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, and so;
 The comma is needed if the 'and' is used to connect two independent clauses.
 Paul went to Kenya for his holiday, and Steve went to Dorset.
 If, however, it is used simply to connect two elements in the same clause or sentence, no
comma is required.
 Paul and Steve went to sunny Barrow in Furness on holiday this year.
 He liked listening to rap and classical music.
 BUT but requires a comma when acting as a coordinating conjunction, connecting two
independent clauses.
 The weather was fine on Sunday, but we chose to stay in and watch TV.
 When used to connect two ideas with the idea of 'with the exception of', no comma is
needed.
 Everybody but Jim got a new pencil.
 OR, a comma is required when or is used to separate two independent clauses.
 I can cook something special tonight, or Jim can zoom down to the fish and chip shop.
 If it is used to separate two elements in the same sentence, no comma is needed.
 You can have fish or chicken.

 Correlative Conjunctions
 Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together.
 Some examples are either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, both/and etc.
 Not only am I finished studying for English, but I’m also finished writing my history essay.
 I didn't know whether you'd want milk or cream, so I grabbed both.
 Subordinating Conjunctions
 Subordinating conjunctions join independent and dependent clauses.
 subordinating conjunctions are because, since, as, although, though, while, and whereas.
 The cyclist fell off her bike because the road was icy.

 The subordinating conjunction doesn’t need to go in the middle of the sentence.

 It has to be part of the dependent clause, but the dependent clause can come before the
independent clause.
 Before he leaves, make sure his room is clean.
 If the dependent clause comes first, use a comma before the independent clause.
 I drank a glass of water because I was thirsty.
 Because I was thirsty, I drank a glass of water.
 HOWEVER
 Two independent clauses can be connected by coordinating conjunctions (with a comma)
but cannot be connected by the word however.
 Using the word 'however' to connect two independent clauses is a common mistake.
 Paul decided to go to Kenya, but Steve went to Dorset. (Correct)
 Paul decided to go to Kenya, however Steve went to Dorset. (Incorrect)
 Instead make it into two different sentences.
 Paul decided to go to Kenya. Steve, however, went to Dorset.

 'however’ can be used to express contrast. It is usually offset with a comma.

 There was, however, no chance of any cricket being played on Wednesday.
 She, however, was a truly awful cook.
 My culinary skills are, however, second to none.
 Starting a Sentence with a Conjunction
 A subordinating conjunction can begin a sentence if the dependent clause comes
before the independent clause. It’s also correct to begin a sentence with a coordinating
conjunction.
 Have a safe trip. And don’t forget to call when you get home.
 Gertie flung open the door. But there was no one on the other side.

 https://www.englishgrammar.org/conjunctions-exercise/
 https://www.learnenglishfeelgood.com/english-grammar-conjunctions2.html
 https://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/grammar-exercise-conjunctions.php
 https://www.englishpractice.com/quiz/conjunctions-exercise-15/?pdf=6761
 A preposition is used to show a relationship between the noun and pronoun in a sentence.
 We commonly use it to show a relationship in space or time or a logical relationship
between two or more people, places or things.
 It was difficult to sleep during the flight.
 It was the worst storm since the 1980s.

 Although most prepositions are single words, some pairs and groups of words operate like
single prepositions:
 We estimate that there’ll be up to 10,000 people at the concert.
 They were unable to attend because of the bad weather in Ireland.
 Types of Prepositions
 Prepositions indicate direction, time, location, and spatial relationships, as well as other
abstract types of relationships.
 Direction: Look to the left and you’ll see our destination.
 Time: We’ve been working since this morning.
 Location: We saw a movie at the theater.
 Space: The dog hid under the table.

 Ending a Sentence With a Preposition

 The old claim that it’s wrong to end a sentence with a preposition has been utterly
debunked.
 There’s no one else to hide behind . (Grammatically correct and natural)
 There’s no one else behind whom to hide. (Grammatically correct, but unnatural)
 It is sometimes elegant to move a preposition to an earlier spot in a sentence. But if you do
move the preposition, remember to delete it from the end.
 This is something we must meditate on .
 This is something on which we must meditate.
 This is something on which we must meditate on . Incorrect

 Unnecessary Prepositions
 most common preposition mistakes is adding an unnecessary at to the end of a question.
 Where is your brother at ? Incorrect
 Where is your brother? Correct

 Too many prepositions can be a sign of flabby writing.

 Example: For many people, the reality of an entry into a new area of employment is cause
for a host of anxieties.
 Getting rid of too many prepositions makes the sentence easier to understand.
 Here’s another example:
 Alex hit the baseball up over the fence.
 Alex hit the baseball over the fence.

 Phrasal verbs
 Many prepositions are also used as phrasal verbs (or idiomatically).
 There are no specific rules these expressions must be memorized.
 Here are some examples:
 look up
 applied to
 depend on
 identical to
 opposed to
 preoccupied with
 prohibited from
 recover from
Prepositions or conjunctions?
Some words which are prepositions also function as conjunctions.
When we use a preposition that is followed by a clause, it is functioning as a conjunction;
when we use a preposition that is followed by a noun phrase, it stays as a preposition.
Among the most common are after, as, before, since, until:

We’ll just have to wait until they decide what to do. (conjunction)
Okay, we’ll wait here until six o’clock. (preposition)

 Prepositions or adverbs?
 Several words which are prepositions also belong to the word class of adverbs.
 These include: about, across, around, before, beyond, in, inside, near, opposite, outside, past,
round, through, under, up, within:
 There were lots of people waiting for a taxi outside the club. (preposition)
 Where’s your cat?
 She’s outside. (adverb)
 Prepositions
1.We had a discussion about money.
2.He gave a lecture on finance.
About used suggests that the discussion was ordinary.
On used suggests that the lecture was serious or academic, suitable for specialists.
3. The water came up above / over our waist.
Above is preferred when one thing is not directly over another.
4. There is a temple above/over the lake.
Over is preferred when one thing covers or touches another.
5. He put on a sweater above/over his shirt.
6. The temperature never rose above/over 5 degrees Celsius.
7. You have to be above/over 18 to see that film
 In measurements of temperature and height we use above. In measurements of ages and
speeds we use over.
8. We went through/across the wood.
(We were in the wood.)
9. We walked through/across the desert.
(We were on the desert.)
The difference between across and through is similar to the difference meaning on and in.
10. Jack drove his car into/in the garage.
11. My friend lives in/into that house.
12. The teacher came quickly into/in the room and began the lesson.
13. The dishes are in/into that cupboard
'in' indicates a state of being, whereas 'into' indicates motion.
14. He put the book onto/on the desk.
15. You can find the dictionary on/onto the table.
 onto' indicates motion where 'on' does not
16.Tom is between/ among Mary and Helen in that picture.
17. You'll find the letter among/between the papers on the table.
'between' is used when something is placed between two objects.
'Among', on the other hand, is used when something is placed among many objects.
18. Hang your coat beside/besides mine over there.
19. Come sit down beside/besides me.
'Beside' - without an s- means 'next to’.
'Besides' - with an 's' - states that something is in addition to something else.
https://preply.com/en/blog/2014/12/23/5-pairs-of-tricky-prepositions-in-english/

 https://www.englishgrammar.org/commonly-confused-prepositions-2/

 http://www.perfectyourenglish.com/grammar/confusing-prepositions-worksheet.htm
Thank You