The Nervous System

The central
processing unit

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 Parts of the Nervous System

• Central Nervous System (CNS): brain and spinal

cord

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Craniospinal

nerves

• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): nerves that

control vital organs: heart, lungs, GI, vessels,
glands, etc.
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 Receptors
(eyes, ears, other sense organs)
change information from outside the
body ( for example, light waves) into
electrical impulses.
Digitalization

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Receptive field

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Stimulus Receptor Location Receptive Adaptation
field
mechanoreception
Touch, pressure Free nerve ending Hair root Variable

Small
Texture, steady Merkel receptor Slow
pressure Superficial
Flutter, stroking Meissner Rapid
Stretch Ruffini Deep Large Slow
Vibration Pacinian corpuscle Extremely rapid
Thermoreception
Cold Free nerve ending Superficial Small Rapid
Warm
Nociception
Thermal Small Rapid
Free nerve ending Superficial
Mechanical Large Slow
Polymodal ( chemical) Large Slow
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Somatosensory receptors

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 Glial cells
• 10 times than neurons
• 50% of volume • O2A, in remyelination
• Astrocytes in BBB • Microglia as
macrophage

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Glymphatic System

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 Astrocytes
• Ions & NT regulation in ECF
• Buffering K+
• Beta amyloid protein removal
• Trophic support of neurons, nourish,
Neurotaxism
• Boundaries between adjacent
process(insulate)
• Capillaries & neurons
• Forming glial scar
• Removing debris
• CSF flow
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• If the cellular system became overloaded or
slowed down as we aged, metabolic garbage
would build up between the cells
• This garbage includes products such as beta-
amyloid, the protein associated with
Alzheimer's disease

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• (1) CSF flows into the brain parenchyma via
the periarterial space
• From this perivascular space CSF enters the
interstitium of the brain tissue via Aquaporin 4
(AQP4)-controlled water channels
• These are distributed in the end feet of
astrocytes in outer wall of the perivascular
space
• (2) CSF entering IF flows by convection, and
CSF-ISF exchange within the brain
parenchyma
• (3) After washing the waste proteins from the
tissue, it flows into the perivenous space in
deep-draining vein, and is subsequently
discharged outside the brain
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• If the cellular system became overloaded or
slowed down as we aged, metabolic garbage
would build up between the cells
• This garbage includes products such as beta-
amyloid, the protein associated with
Alzheimer's disease

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Spaces between the meninges

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 The meninges: three membranes
envelop the entire CNS
(central nervous system)
dura mater The outer, hardest, toughest

arachnoid The middle, web like

pia mater The inner, thinner

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 Cerebrospinal fluid
• Cerebrospinal fluid: watery liquid
is found inside the brain, spinal cord, and
subarachnoid space
supports the brain’s weight
protects and cushions the brain and the spinal
cord

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 CSF
• Clear body fluid, produced by plexus choroid
• Nearly protein-free fluid
• Daily production: 500-600 ml
• Total: 100- 160 ml

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JCf273U0ktc

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CSF

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 CSF vs Plasma
Substance CSF Plasma
Water Content (%) 99 93
Protein (mg/dL) 35 7000
Glucose (mg/dL) 60 90
Osmolarity (mOsm/L) 295 295
Sodium (mEq/L) 138 138
Potassium (mEq/L) 2.8 4.5
Calcium (mEq/L) 2.1 4.8
Magnesium (mEq/L) 0.3 1.7
Chloride (mEq/L) 119 102
pH 7.33 7.41

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 Increased intracranial pressure
• Behavior changes
• Decreased consciousness
• Headache
• Lethargy
• Neurological symptoms, including weakness,
numbness, eye movement problems, and double
vision
• Seizures
• Vomiting
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kaOphkMv2pM
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The Central Nervous System includes

White matter: bundles of axons and dendrites

Gray matter: masses of nerve cell bodies

The brain: inside the cranium

The spinal cord: inside the vertebral column
(the “backbone”)

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 More nerve terms
nerve fibers Dendrites and axons

nerve A bundle of dendrites and axons

nucleus A group of neuron cell bodies INSIDE the

brain and spinal cord
(plural: nucleii)

ganglion A group of neuron cell bodies OUTSIDE the

brain and spinal cord
(plural: ganglia)

synapse The space connecting one neuron to another

neurotransmitter A chemical which transmits an electrical

impulse from one neuron to the next
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 Types of Neurons
Type Connected to Carry impulses Carry impulses
from to

Sensory receptors (eyes, ears, sense organs spinal cord

other sense organs) and brain
(afferent)
other neurons

Motor (efferent) effectors (muscles and spinal cord muscles

glands) and brain and glands
other neurons

Connector other neurons other neurons other neurons

(interneuron)
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Spinal cord

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 Spinal Cord, Rexed Lamina Organization

• Lissauer: entrance of inputs

• Lamina I: pain & temperature inputs
• Lamina II: Substantia Gelatinosa Rolandi (SGR); in the control of
pain
• Lamina III & IV: similar to II but receive more senses of pain, temp &
touch
• Lamina V: T cells that transmit the pain sensation
• Lamina VI: present mainly in cervical & lumbosacral regions. Receive
proprioception of muscles

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 Spinal Cord, Rexed Lamina Organization(cont.)
• Lamina VII: intermediolateral (preganglionic of sympathetic &
intermediomedial nuclei; clark’s column, thoracic nucleus.
Neurons
• Lamina VIII: interneuron for flexor & extensor muscles
• Lamina IX: consists of IXm (medial) & IX (lateral, present in
cervical & lumbosacral); alpha & gamma motoneurons of
muscles
• In limbs motoneurons of axial muscles in medial & proximal and
distal laterally; flexors more internally & extensors more
externally
• Lamina X: interconnections between two sides of spinal cord

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Spinal cord transection

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 Pain
• Dull pain; by C fiber
• Sharp pain; by Aδ
fiber

• Substantia Gelatinosa
Rolandi (SGR)

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 Pain Classification
Slow pain Fast pain
Dull pain Sharp pain
Transmitted by C fibers Transmitted by A fibers
Poorly localized Well localized
Body wants to be immobile to allow Immediate withdrawal of stimulation to
healing (guarding, spasm, rigidity) avoid further damage
Pain often radiates, or is referred Pain does not radiate
Effective relief from opioids Little relief from opioids
Examples: labour pain, pain starting after Examples: pain from a surgical incision
fast pain from an injury, toothache,
internal organs

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Classification of pain

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 Pain
• Pain receptors are free nerve endings
– Mechanical
– Thermal
– Chemical
• A mechanical stimulus would be, for example, high pressure or stretching,
• Thermal pain stimulus would be extreme heat or cold

• Chemical pain receptors can be stimulated by chemicals from the outside

(e.g. acids), but also by certain products present in the body and released
as a result of trauma, inflammation or other painful stimuli
– bradykinins, serotonin, potassium ions and acids (such as lactic acid, which
causes muscle pain after heavy exercise)
• Compounds called prostaglandins are released with painful stimuli, and
although they don’t directly stimulate pain receptors, they do increase
their sensitivity
• NSAIDs decrease the effect of prostaglandins

• Paracetamol operates in the central nervous system and the NSAIDs are
peripheral-acting substances
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Gate control theory

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Gate control of pain

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 Control of pain
• Descending pathways;
– Periaquaductal gray matter (PAG)
– Prefrontal cortex
– Raphe nuclei
• Endorphins & enkephalines

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RostroVentral Medulla(RVM)

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Spinal Cord, Motor & Sensory Paths

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 Sensory pathways of spinal cord
(afferents)
• Dorsal column:
• Gracilis: lower limbs
• Cuneatus: upper limbs
– Cuneocerebellar: inf peduncle, same side of
cerebellum

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Sensory pathways of spinal cord (afferents)

• Spinocervical, from sensory hairs

• Dorsal spinocerebellar tract (DSCT), from Clark’s
column, same side, inf peduncle, same hemisphere,
second order neuron in Clark
• Ventral spinocerebellar tract (VSCT), opposite side,
sup peduncle, both hemispheres
• Rostral spinocerebellar tract, joints & muscle, same
side, sup peduncle, both hemispheres

• Anterolateral system: 1 or 2 segment upper

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 Dorsal Column Medial Lemniscus
• Fine touch
• 2-point discrimination
• Vibration
• Proprioception
• Second neuron in lower
medulla( Gracile N.& Cuneate
N.)
• Cross in medulla
• 3rd order neuron in Thalamus,
goes toward PCG

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Motor pathway, Pyramidal tract

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Brown-Sequard Syndrom

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 The Cerebrum
is divided into two cerebral hemispheres
has an outer surface,

or CORTEX,
made of “gray matter”

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 The Cerebral cortex
is divided into parts called lobes:
1. the frontal lobe
2. the parietal lobe
3. the temporal lobe
4. the occipital lobe

5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=owFnH01SD-s

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 The Frontal lobe

is the center for voluntary movement

is called the “motor area” (movement)
includes the Prefrontal area,
for intelligence, creativity, memory, and
ideas
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 Cortex
• Prefrontal
• Frontal: motor cortex/ supplementary & premotor
cortex
• Somatosensory cortex ; for the sensation; it has huge
connections with other parts of cortex, such as
premotor cortex, temporal lobe & association cortex

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Phineas Gage(1848)

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Edvardo(2012)

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2017

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 The parietal lobe
Collects, recognizes, and organizes sensations:
feelings of
Pain
Temperature
Touch
Position
Movement

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 The Temporal lobe
• Processes auditory information
• Stores auditory and visual memories
• Includes Wernicke’s speech area

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 The Occipital lobe
is at the back of the cerebral hemisphere
Involves:

Vision
Visual memory
Eye movements

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 Cortex
• Columnar organization
• Parallel processing

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Motor Areas of Cerebral Cortex
Association cortex

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 Strategy of movement

• Step 1: highest level; aim of movement,

specific for human
• Step 2: how it can be performed, which
muscles should contract
• Step 3: how to do it; the lowest level,
present in all animals

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• Termination:
directly on motor
neuron or on the
interneuron
• 55% end in cervical
region, 20% in
thoracic and 25%
in lumbosacral
region.
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 Neglect
• Spatial neglect is a behavioral syndrome
occurring after brain injury

• Spatial neglect involves the inability to report,

respond, or orient to stimuli, generally in the
contralesional space

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 Neglect Syndrome
• People with injury to either side of the brain
may experience spatial neglect, but neglect
occurs more commonly in persons with brain
injury affecting the right cortical hemisphere,
which often causes left hemiparesis

• Spatial neglect is more commonly associated

with lesions of the inferior parietal lobule or
temporoparietal region, superior temporal
cortex, or frontal lobe
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 Neglect Syndrome
• Association cortex defects

• Tests:
• Line bisection test
• Letter cancellation test
• Drawing and copying
• Reading and writing

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 Apraxia(ideomotor)
• Acquired or Developmental
• Lesion in parietal lobe of dominant
hemisphere
• Bilateral effects
• Unable to perform
pantomim

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 Apraxia(kinetic)
• Inability to perform certain learned
movements, motor memory
• Lesion in premotor area
– Placing a letter in an envelop

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 Corticobulbar tract
• From cortex to medulla

• Fibers terminate on Cranial Nerve nuclei

• Termination may be ipsilateral, contralateral,

or bilateral
 Functions
• Execution of skilled voluntary movements

• Anterior corticospinal tract controls proximal

& axial muscles

• Form part of superficial reflex pathway

 Rubrospinal Tract
• Originates in Red nucleus
• Cross over in midbrain and descend on
opposite side
• Terminate on motor neurons of distal muscles
• Has somatotopic map in red nucleus
• Concerned with skilled movements
 Vestibulospinal tract
• Lateral vestibulospinal tract arise from Deiter’s
nucleus- receive input from utricle & saccule

• Medial vestibulospinal tract originates from

medial & descending vestibular nuclei- receive
signals from semicircular canals

• Concerned with muscle tone , posture &

equilibrium
 Reticulospinal Tract
• Medullary reticulospinal tract decreases tone
of antigravity muscles
• Damage= rigidity

• Pontine reticulospinal tract increases tone of

antigravity muscle

• Under the influence of higher centers

 Tectospinal tract
• Originate from superior colliculus
• Cross over to opposite side

• Concerned with muscles of head and neck

• Controls visually guided head movements

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 Motor system
• The pyramidal system carries the signal for
muscle contraction

• The extrapyramidal system provides

regulatory influence on muscle contraction

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 Pyramidal Vs. Extrapyramidal system
Characters Pyramidal system Extrapyramidal
system
Phylogeny New Old

Myelination After birth Before birth

Functions Fine, skillful movements Gross postural movements

Damage Spastic paralysis Hypotonia + rigidity

Even during sleep paralysis
Hypotonic during sleep,
but hypertonic with
volitional movements
Speed of conduction Slow Fast
 Extrapyramidal palsy
Dyskinetic Ataxic
• Athetosis, wormlike slow • Cerebellar, tremor and
writing drunken-like gait
• Chorea, quick, jerky
movements
• choreoathetosis

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cOfUGUNxEqU

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 Internal capsule
• Mass of axons
• Laterally lenticular nucleus and medially thalamus & caudate
• Ascending sensory fibers occupy posterior 1/3rd of posterior
limb
• Corticospinal & Corticobulbar fibers occupy genu & anterior
2/3rds of posterior limb
• Frontopontine fibers & thalamocortical fibers in anterior limb
• Injury at this level causes hemiplegia
• Involvement of lenticulostriate artery
 Parts of the brainstem
• Midbrain: contains auditory (hearing), visual (sight), and
muscle control centers
• Pons: connects the medulla oblongata, the cerebellum,
and cerebrum
• Medulla Oblongata: lowest and most posterior
(at the back of the brain)

The hindbrain includes the pons and the medulla.

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 The Diencephalon

is located between the midbrain

and the cerebrum
has three parts:
the thalamus: receives sensory
information and sends it to the
cerebral cortex.
the epithalamus: contains the
pineal body and olfactory centers.
the hypothalamus: connects the
endocrine and nervous systems.
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/A/anatomy_and_physiology.html

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 The Hypothalamus
Connects the endocrine and nervous systems.
Controls:
the autonomic nervous system
body temperature
carbohydrate and fat metabolism
appetite
emotions

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 The midbrain
Controls
vision
hearing
muscles

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 The pons (the bridge)
Connects the medulla oblongata, cerebellum,
and cerebrum
Associates with sensory nerves: taste, hearing, and balance.
Controls muscles of the face

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 The medulla oblongata

Controls
alertness
heart action
respiration (breathing)
blood pressure

Connects the CEREBRUM with the SPINAL CORD

the RIGHT side of the brain controls the LEFT side of the body.
the LEFT side of the brain controls the RIGHT side of the body.

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 The Cerebellum

Coordinates muscle activity.

has three parts:
the vermis
the right cerebellar hemisphere
the left cerebellar hemisphere

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 The limbic system

controls emotions and memory

controls emotions and memory

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Papez cicuit

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 PNS: Peripheral Nervous System
• Includes all the nerves and ganglia outside the
brain and spinal cord

cranial nerves: 12 pairs of nerves connected

directly to the brain

spinal nerves: 31 pairs of nerves connected to

the spinal cord

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 Nerve Pathways
Somatic (body) motor pathways carry impulses
from the CNS (central nervous system) to
skeletal muscles
• pyramidal pathways carry impulses that
control voluntary actions that involve thought
• extrapyramidal pathways carry impulses that
control automatic movements, such as
walking

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 Reflexes
• A reflex is an action that:
occurs below the brain, within in the spinal cord
is an automatic reaction
is not conscious (voluntary)
can be inborn (a baby has it at birth, such as
sucking, swallowing, urinating)
can be learned (such as talking,walking, driving)

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 More reflexes

• INBORN • LEARNED
knee jerk reflex reading
pupillary reflex typing
Babinski swimming
swallowing dancing
coughing skating
blinking playing football

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 The Autonomic Nervous System
controls
• involuntary, smooth, and cardiac (heart)
muscles and glands.
• systems that work automatically: digestive,
circulatory, respiratory, urinary, and
endocrine.

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 ANS
• The ANS is the part of the nervous system responsible for
involuntary bodily functions such as:
• blood pressure
• heart and breathing rates
• body temperature
• digestion
• metabolism
• balance of water and electrolytes
• production of body fluids
• urination
• defecation
• sexual response
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 The Autonomic Nervous System
has two parts
• the sympathetic system
• the parasympathetic system

These parts work together to maintain

homeostasis: normal balance of the systems
in the body

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 Autonomic Dysreflexia(AD)
• A condition in which the involuntary nervous
system overreacts to external or bodily stimuli
• It’s also known as autonomic hyperreflexia
• This reaction causes a dangerous spike in
blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, constriction
of the peripheral blood vessels, and other
changes in autonomic functions

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 AD
• The condition is most commonly seen in
people with spinal cord injuries above the
sixth thoracic vertebra, or T6
• It may also affect people who have multiple
sclerosis, Guillain-Barre syndrome, and some
head or brain injuries
• AD can also be a side effect of medication or
drug use

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• AD is potentially life-threatening and can
result in:
• stroke
• retinal hemorrhage
• cardiac arrest
• pulmonary edema
• AD is a very serious condition, and it’s a
medical emergency
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 AD
• AD interrupts both the sympathetic and the
parasympathetic nervous systems
• This means that the body’s SANS overreacts to
stimuli such as a full bladder, and the PANS
can’t effectively stop that reaction and may
actually make it worse

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 Mechanism of AD
• Lower body still generates a lot of nerve signals after a
spinal cord injury
• These signals communicate the status of the bladder,
bowels, digestion, and other bodily functions
• The signals can’t get past the spinal injury to the brain
• However, they are still being sent to the parts of the
sympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic nervous
systems that operate below the spinal cord injury
• Signals from bodily functions can trigger the SANS and
PANS, but the brain can’t appropriately respond to
them
• They can no longer work effectively as a team, so SANS
and PANS can get out of control
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 Triggers in AD
• a distended bladder
• a blocked catheter
• urinary retention
• a urinary tract infection
• bladder stones
• constipation
• a bowel impaction
• hemorrhoids
• skin irritations
• pressure sores
• tight clothing
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 Symptoms of AD
• anxiety and apprehension
• irregular or racing heartbeat
• nasal congestion
• high blood pressure with systolic readings often
over 200 mm Hg
• a pounding headache
• flushing of the skin
• profuse sweating, particularly on the forehead
• lightheadedness
• dizziness
• confusion
• dilated pupils
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 Emergency consideration
• Moving into sitting position to cause the blood to
flow to the feet
• Removing tight clothes and socks
• Checking for a blocked catheter
• Draining a distended bladder with a catheter
• Removing any other potential triggers, such as
drafts of air blowing the skin
• Treating for fecal impaction
• Administering vasodilators or other drugs to bring
the blood pressure under control

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Dermatomes

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 Ear

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qgdqp-oPb1Q
Lymphatic drainage

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Cochlea2
Cochlea
Basilar/Tectorial Membrane
 Human hearing
• human hearing is 20 Hz to 20 kHz

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fIAjJogJ0cs
Saccule/Utricle
Vestibular apparatus
Macula with Otoliths
 Cupula of
semicircular
canal
 Meniere’s disease
• A condition where the membranes and structures
within the inner ear contain too much fluid and become
distended
• Meniere's disease is a disorder of the inner ear that
causes episodes of vertigo, and fluctuating hearing loss
with a progressive, ultimately permanent loss of
hearing, tinnitus, and sometimes a feeling of fullness or
pressure in the ear
• In most cases, Meniere's disease affects only one ear
• Meniere's disease can occur at any age, but it usually
starts between the ages of 20 and 50
• It's considered a chronic condition, but various
treatments can help relieve symptoms and minimize
the long-term impact on life 152
 Sign & symptoms
• Dizziness
• Nausea
• Vertigo
• Hearing loss
• Tinnitus
• Nystagmus
• Cold sweats
• Migraine
• Mood changes
• Diarrhea

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrk7OyAB_ss 153
 Meniere’s disease
• Most episodes of vertigo with Meniere’s
disease are not related to head position as
with BPPV
• The attacks can occur without warning any
time and can last more than 20 minutes each
time

154
 Triggers
• Factors that affect the fluid, which might contribute to
Meniere's disease, include:
• Improper fluid drainage, perhaps because of a blockage or
anatomic abnormality
• Abnormal immune response
• Allergies
• Viral infection
• Genetic predisposition
• Head trauma
• Migraines

• Because no single cause has been identified, it's likely that

Meniere's disease results from a combination of factors 155
 Preventive care & Treatment
• Reduced-sodium diet, salted snacks…
• Drink adequate amounts of water
• Use more fresh fruits and whole grains
• Avoid dehydrating foods
• Avoid caffeine-containing fluids and foods
• Limit alcohol intake
• Avoid foods containing MSG (monosodium
glutamate)

156
 Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo
(BPPV)
• Common type of vertigo associated with the ears
• Associated with balance in the inner ear which
contain tiny crystals
• Crystals can become dislodged and, with certain
head movements, find their way into the semicircular
canals
• This causes intense dizziness that’s usually
characterized by a spinning sensation
• Lasts less than 5 min
• Epley Maneuver
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qw1QciZWfP0 157
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9SLm76jQg3g

Start sitting on
a bed and turn
your head 45° Lie back
to the right. quickly with Turn your Turn your
Place a pillow shoulders on head 90° to body and
behind you so the pillow and the left head another
that on lying head reclined (without 90° to the left
back it will be onto the bed. raising it) and and wait for Sit up on
under your Wait for 30 wait again for another 30 the left
shoulders. seconds. 30 seconds. seconds. side.

This maneuver should be carried out three times a day. Repeat this daily until you are free from
positional vertigo for 24 hours. 158
159
 PTSD
• Role of amygdala & cortex on PTSD
• Role of prefrontal cortex

160
 Depression
• Lack or decrease in serotonin secretion in
prefrontal cortex
• Prozac, stimulates 5-HT secretion in prefrontal
cortex, in order to improve depression
• Prozac has dependency

161
 Laboratory tests

• brain scan: using a scanner to diagnose defects of

the brain
• cerebrospinal fluid tests: check for blood,
infection,and other abnormalities
• echoencephalogram: using ultrasound to check
the brain for abnormalities
• electroencephalogram (EEG) using a machine to
check for abnormal electrical activity in the brain
• myelography: x-ray of the spinal cord
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 Psychiatric (or Mental) Disorders
These diseases of the mind generally are not
caused by physical abnormalities.
• alcoholic intoxication: confusion and amnesia
caused by drinking alcohol (being “drunk”)
• delirium tremens: mental disturbance caused
by drinking alcohol, with trembling,
excitement, anxiety, hallucinations,and
convulsions

163
 Psychiatric (or Mental) Disorders
• anorexia nervosa: an eating disorder
sometimes resulting in the patient starving to
death; most patients are young females.
• antisocial personality disorder: patient
behaves in a way that is not acceptable to
society; for example, criminal or violent
behavior

164
 Psychiatric (or Mental) Disorders
• attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a
child or adolescent does poorly in school, is restless,
has a short attention span, and is very active
physically
• bulimia: deliberately vomiting after eating, to control
weight
• dissociative disorder: a personality disease
• down syndrome: congenital mental retardation with
physical symptoms

165
 Psychiatric (or Mental) Disorders
• mania: extreme excitement
• mental retardation: below average intelligence
• paranoia: patient believes that people are
trying to harm him
• posttraumatic stress disorder: emotional
problems following a traumatic (harmful)
event, such as war, rape, or crime

166
 Psychiatric (or Mental) Disorders
• personality disorder: patient blames problems
in relationships on other people. common
types:
paranoid
schizoid
antisocial
passive-aggressive
obsessive-compulsive
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 Psychiatric (or Mental) Disorders
• phobia: an unreasonable fear
• acrophobia: fear of heights
• agoraphobia: fear of open or crowded places
• claustrophobia: fear of closed-in places
• xenophobia: fear of strangers
• zoophobia: fear of a animal, or of animals in
general

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 Psychiatric (or Mental) Disorders
• posttraumatic stress disorder: severe anxiety
following a traumatic (frightening or harmful)
event
• psychotic disorder: patient is out of touch with
reality, confused, and cannot think properly
• substance abuse: patients are dependent on
alcohol and/or drugs, and this interferes with
their work or social lives

169
 Other Psychiatric Terms
• Amnesia: loss of memory
• Analgesia: not being able to feel pain
• Anesthesia: not feeling anything in a body part
• Apathy: not feeling emotions
• Asthenia: weakness
• Autism: personality disorder that affects
children

170
 Other Psychiatric Terms

• Catalepsy: muscles are rigid

• Cyclothymic: switching between being very
happy and very sad
• Delusion: false belief or idea
• Disorientation: confusion about time,
place, and/or identity
• Drug dependency: being addicted to or
used to using drugs
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 Other Psychiatric Terms
• Dyslexia: being unable to read well
• Dysphoria: sadness or depression
• Egocentric: self-centered
• Empathy: the ability to understand how other
people feel
• Euphoria: feeling too happy, the opposite of
dysphoria

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 Other Psychiatric Terms
• Gay: homosexual (slang)
• Hallucination: seeing, hearing, smelling,
feeling, or tasting something that does not
exist
• Homosexuality: romantic attraction to people
of the same sex
• Hypnosis: induced condition of altered
consciousness

173
 Other Psychiatric Terms
• Incest: sexual relations among close relatives
• Inertia: not active
• Insomnia: not able to sleep
• Introverted: a person thinks about himself and
doesn’t communicate much with other people

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 Other Psychiatric Terms
• Malingering: pretending to be sick
• Neurosis: mild psychiatric (mental) problem
• pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS): emotional distress
before the start of menstruation
• Psychogenic: illness came from psychological, rather
than physical, disease
• Psychosis: sever mental disorder; patient is out of
touch with reality
• Sadism: taking pleasure in hurting other people

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 Psychiatric Treatment
• electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): electric shocks used
to treat depression
• antianxiety drugs: tranquilizers, medicine that makes
a person feel calmer
• psychotherapy: treatment for psychiatric disorders
• psychiatry: medical treatment for diseases of the
mind and emotions
• tranquilizer: medicine that makes a person feel
calmer

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 Nerve Structures and Related Terms

• Myelinated nerves: nerves covered with

white fatty material called myelin
• Neuron: single nerve cell; has a cell body,
axon, and dendrites
• Neurotransmitters: chemicals that
stimulate (start) or prohibit (prevent) the
transmission of nervous impulses

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 Nerve Structures and Related Terms

• plexus: network of spinal nerves

• reflex: an action done without a person’s
control, such as blinking
• sensory neurons: nerves that carry
information from the sense organs to the
spinal cord
• synapse: space between two neurons, across
which an impulse is transmitted (passed)

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 Related Terms: Cranial Nerves

There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves. Here are a

few of them:
• acoustic (also called auditory): hearing
• facial: facial muscles and taste
• olfactory: sense of smell

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 Related Terms: Infections

encephalitis: inflammation of the brain

herpes zoster: infection caused by herpes virus;
characterized by small blisters on the skin;
also called “shingles”
meningitis: inflammation of the brain and
meninges
myelitis: inflammation of the spinal cord
neuritis: inflammation of a nerve
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 Related Terms: Infections

• Poliomyelitis (“polio”): virus infection of the spinal

cord, caused by a polio virus
• Polyneuritis: inflammation of a large number of
spinal nerves at the same time
• Rabies: infection of the CNS and salivary glands,
transmitted by animal bite
• Tetanus: acute bacterial infection caused by a
bacterium found in soil, dust, or animal or human
wastes

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 Hereditary and Congenital Disorders

• hereditary: inherited from a parent

• congenital: a disorder a child has at birth
• developmental: a disorder that appears as a
child grows

182
 Related Terms: Hereditary and Congenital
Disorders
• epilepsy
nervous system disorder
inherited or the result of trauma (injury)
patient may have convulsions of four types:
grand mal
petit mal
psychomotor
focal

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 Related Terms: Circulatory Disturbances

• cerebral hemorrhage: bleeding into the

cerebrum
• CVA (cerebrovascular accident)
also called stroke or apoplexy
bleeding in the brain due to ruptured artery
symptoms: headache, nausea, vomiting,
confusion

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 Related Terms: Circulatory Disturbances

• epidural hematoma: collection of blood

outside the dura mater
• intracranial hemorrhage: bleeding inside the
cranium
• subdural hemorrhage or hematoma: bleeding
between the dura mater and the arachnoid
membrane

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 Related Terms: Other Organic Abnormalities

• Alzheimer’s disease: progressive brain

disease, mainly of the elderly (people over 65)
• ALS (amytrophic lateral sclerosis): progressive
nervous system disease of the spinal cord with
muscle weakness and twitching.
• Aphasia: loss of the ability to speak or write
• Ataxia: loss of muscle coordination

186
 Related Terms: Other Organic Abnormalities

• Alzheimer’s disease: progressive brain

disease, mainly of the elderly (people over 65)
• ALS (amytrophic lateral sclerosis): progressive
nervous system disease of the spinal cord with
muscle weakness and twitching.
• aphasia: loss of the ability to speak or write
• ataxia: loss of muscle coordination

187
 Related Terms: Other Organic Abnormalities,

• aura: before an epileptic seizure, a patient

sees, smells, hears, or feels something
unusual.
• Bell’s palsy: weakness on one side of the face
• cerebral palsy: brain damage affecting control
of muscles
• chorea: nervous disease with involuntary jerky
movements.

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 Related Terms: Other Organic Abnormalities

• coma: patient is unconscious, can’t be

awakened
• Delirium: patient has hallucinations, is excited,
restless, and incoherent ( talking in an illogical
way)
• Dementia: brain deteriorates because of disease
• dyskinesia: patient’s movements are incomplete
or uncontrolled, because of disease

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 Related Terms: Other Organic Abnormalities

• dysphasia: patient doesn’t speak clearly

• hemiplegia: one side of the body is paralyzed
• Jacksonian seizures: seizures that start in a distant
part of the body, such as the fingers, and spread
towards the center of the body
• multiple sclerosis: progressive disorder of brain and
spinal cord, starting early in life, resulting in tremors,
lack of coordination, speech problems, etc.

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 Related Terms: Other Organic Abnormalities

• narcolepsy: patient suddenly falls asleep

• neuralgia: pain in a nerve
• palsy: paralysis
• paralysis: loss of ability to move a part of the
body
• paraplegia: paralysis of lower body and legs
• paresis: a form of paralysis

191
 Related Terms: Other Organic Abnormalities

• Parkinson’s disease: nervous system disease

of late life
• amnesia: loss of memory
• syncope: fainting

192